EGYPT AND MESOPOTAMIA.

EGIPT AND MESOPOTAMIA
Education in the ancient Egipt, in Mesopotamia, and the importance of
libraries.
JUNE 7TH, 2014
INSTITUTO TECNOLÓGICO DE MORELIA SPMETH1A
Mónica Herrera García

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INDEX
1. EGIPT ............................................................................................................................. 2
a. TIME LOCATION .................................................................................................... 3
b. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION .................................................................................. 4
c. NATURAL RESOURCES ...................................................................................... 5
d. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ...................................................................................... 6
e. HEALTH ................................................................................................................... 7
f. FOOD........................................................................................................................ 8
g. LINGUISTIC HERITAGE ....................................................................................... 9
h. GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION.......................................................................10
i. WAR CONFLICTS ................................................................................................11
j. INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES .............................................................................12
k. IMPORTANT EDUCATORS OR PEDAGOGIST OF THE PERIOD ............13
l. EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES ........................................................................14
2. MESOPOTAMIA .........................................................................................................15
a. TIME LOCATION ..................................................................................................16
b. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION ................................................................................17
c. NATURAL RESOURCES ....................................................................................18
d. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ....................................................................................19
e. HEALTH .................................................................................................................20
f. FOOD......................................................................................................................21
g. LINGUISTIC HERITAGE .....................................................................................22
h. GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION.......................................................................23
i. WAR CONFLICTS ................................................................................................24
j. INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES .............................................................................25
k. IMPORTANT PEDAGOGISTS OR EDUCATORS DURING THE PERIOD26
l. EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES ........................................................................27
3. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LIBRARIES..............................................................28
4. BIBLIOGRAPHY. ........................................................................................................29

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a. TIME LOCATION
Egypt began its march to civilization rather late compared with some regions of the
Near East. Yet once it had taken root, the great civilization of the Nile proved to be
most durable of all, spanning more than three thousand years from the appearance
of the first unified kingdom to the final eclipse of ancient Egyptian culture in the
early Christian era.
For most of its ancient history, Egypt was ruled by kings, or pharaohs, who in
ancient times were grouped into thirty-one dynasties. Egyptologists now tend to
count the Macedonian and Ptolemaic dynasties as numbers thirty-two and thirty-three,
and they have also added a thirty-fourth, the so-called Dynasty “0”, to
account for a handful of very early kings. The dynasties in turn are subdivided into
several periods, three of which are regarded as the peaks of Egyptian civilization:
the “Old Kingdom” (the earliest pyramid age); the “Middle Kingdom”(virtually
synonymous with a single great dynasty, the Twelfth) and the “New Kingdom”(the
age of the great warrior-pharaohs, such as Thutmose III and Ramesses II).
Features of civilized life, such as agriculture and towns, only appear in Egypt in the
sixth millennium BC, some two thousand years later than in Anatolia, Mesopotamia

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and Syria-Palestine. This may be owning to Egypt’s rich natural resources rather
than any cultural retardedness: the savannas adjoining the Nile Valley remained
home to an abundance of plants and animals until these areas became desert, by
approximately 2000BC. The seeds of Egyptian civilization lie in a number of late
Neolithic cultures that emerged approximately 5000 BC and, over the next
thousand years or so, developed into distinctive regional cultures in Upper and
Lower Egypt. In the late fourth millennium BC, the autonomy of the northern culture
was eroded by the rise of an aggressive rival in Upper Egypt. The development of
this southern culture is traced through a number of stages named after
archaeological sites: Badarian, Naqada I, Naqada II and Naqada III. Collectively
these make up the “Predynastic” and “Protodynastic” periods.
The Naqada II period saw the growth of a prosperous and unified culture in Upper
Egypt, with political power consolidated in towns such as Hierakonopolis, Naqada
and This. Classic Egyptian concepts of divine authority began to evolve, including
the ruler’s identification with the sky god Horus. By the later Predynastic Period,
the southern kingdom’s cultural penetration of Lower Egypt would be followed,
gradually but inevitably, by a political takeover of the north.

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b. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION
Egypt lies at the
northern end of the
longest river in the
world: the Nile, which
rises in the East
African highlands and
flows into the
Mediterranean more
than four thousand
miles away.
The Nile in Egypt has
two main parts: the
Valley and the Delta,
corresponding to the
ancient divisions of
the country into
Upper and Lower
Egypt. The Valley,
some 660 miles long,
is a remarkable
canyon that is an offshoot of the African Great Rift Valley. The floodplain occupies
4250 square miles and ranges in width from just one and a quarter miles at Aswan
to eleven miles at el-Amarna.
The silt left by the branches formed a broad triangle of fertile land that covers some
8500 square miles. The Greeks called this land the “Delta”, because its shape
reminded them of the inverted fourth letter of their alphabet. The Delta is fifty-seven
feet above sea level near Cairo and is fringed in the coastal regions by lagoons,
wetlands, lakes and sand dunes. In parts of the eastern Delta there are
conspicuous low hills known as “turtle backs”. These sandy “islands” in the
surrounding silty plain were rarely submerged by the annual inundation and in
Predynastic times (to approximately 4000BC) villages and burial grounds became
established on their slopes. From the Old Kingdom (approximately 2625-2130BC)
onward, the apex of the Delta was close to Memphis, the ancient capital. It is now
fifteen miles north of Cairo.

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The Nile divides the eastern margin of the Sahara into the Western Desert and the
Eastern Desert. The Western Desert covers about two-thirds of Egypt, and its most
striking features are a series of rocky desert plateau and sandy depressions, in
which nestle lush
oases. The Eastern
Desert,
characterized by the
prominent Red Sea
Hills, was important
in pharaonic times
for its minerals. The
Sinai, essentially an
extension of the
Eastern Desert
across the Gulf of
Suez, was also a
major source of
minerals, especially
copper. Wheat,
barley, sheep and
goats were
domesticated in the
Near East at least
two thousand years
before they appeared in the Nile Valley.
The Western Desert, which was not as dry as it is today, has yielded the oldest
evidence of humankind in Egypt.

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c. NATURAL RESOURCES
As well as benefiting
from a rich agriculture,
Egypt provided its
inhabitants with fine
quality stone for
building monuments
and carving statues
and with supplies of
gold from Nubia and
the Eastern Desert.
Stone came from a
variety of sources.
White limestone was
carefully cut from
special quarries such
as Tura near
Memphis. The
limestone was
specially used to cover
the walls of temples
and mastaba tombs as
it was good surface for
bas-relief carvings.
Yellow sandstone
came from Gebel es-
Silsila, and red and
yellow quartzite (often
used for statuary) from
Gebel el-Ahmar. There was schist for statues from Waldi Hammamat. Alabaster,
used in buildings and for small objects, was found in the Eastern Desert were the
main quarry was at Hat-nub.Granite from the Aswan area provided material for
buildings, sarcophagi, and statuary.
The quarries and mines were a royal monopoly. Some were situated in remote
parts of the desert. None was worked continuously; when the king decided that he
wished to build or adorn a temple, an expedition was organized and dispatched to
the quarry.
Even by the New Kingdom their only tools were copper or bronze. In earliest times
only stone had provided tools and weapons. Stone continued as the most
important material for these purposes for many years, and even in the Middle
Kingdom, it was retained, whenever appropriate, alongside metal. Flint was the
traditional stone used for many of these items.

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They also searched in the deserts for the semiprecious stones used by the
jewelers. Some as turquoise, malachite, and emerald, came from the eastern
mines, while carnelian, amethyst, and jasper came from Nubia or the Eastern
Desert. Other natural stones included garnets, green feldspar, and obsidian. Lapis
lazuli was imported from the region known today as Afghanistan via the Euphrates
River region.
The Egyptians regarded gold as one of their most
precious substances, a divine metal that ensured
eternal life. Used for royal and noble burial goods
as well as for jewelry, gold also became a form of
currency by the New Kingdom. Gold was found
both in Egypt and Nubia in the quartz present in
the eastern and southeastern mountains. Wadi
Hammamat and the area to the east of Edfu were
both important gold working areas. The Royal
Treasury owned all the mines, and the mining
expeditions were directed by officers and
soldiers; only state workers were allowed to mine
and handle the gold. Pure silver, regarded as a
type of gold, did not occur in Egypt and was
imported from the north or east. Following their
conquests in Asia the Egyptians had greater
access to it, but silver never became as popular
as gold.
The country was also not particularly rich in
copper. In predynastic times little use was made
of ti except for small decorative objects, but by
Dynasty 2 copper was used for statues of kings
and gods. Gradually it became an increasingly
popular metal in the Old and Middle Kingdoms for
objects such as weapons, tools for carpentry and stoneworking, statuary, jewelry,
mirrors, razors, vases and furniture fittings.

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d. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
From earliest times people were aware that in order to control and regulate the Nile
waters and to organize an efficient irrigation system to benefit all the communities
in the Delta and Nile Valley they would have to act communally.
This need gave people a common goal and was an important incentive for the
unification of Egypt as a state, despite the geographical problems of controlling
such a long, narrow, inhabited area. King Menes unified Egypt in approximately
3100BC, but it is evident that an earlier southern ruler, Scorpion, had started this
process.
The irrigation system was complex; it used the Nile flood and its attendant deposits
of rich black mud to cultivate the land as far as possible on either side of the river.
Earth dikes were built to divide the land into compartments of varying sizes, and
when the river rose the water was diverted into these areas through a system of
canals. It was kept there until the black silt was deposited, and once the river level
fell any remaining water was drained off from these compartments. The remaining
rich soil could be plowed and sown with crops.
Most of the population worked on the land. The peasant worked either with his
family or in a gang and cultivated crops for the state and for his own needs. The
state organized the irrigation system and also the storage of the country’s food
supply in granaries. Officials who controlled these aspects were responsible to the
king who in theory owned all the land.
Egypt’s main crop was cereals. Knowledge of their cultivation was introduced from
the Near East in Neolithic times. The farmers grew two kinds of wheat (spelt and
emmer) as well as barley, and these provided the Egyptians with the basic

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requirements for their staple diet of bread and beer. Stages in the production of
these cereals are depicted in many tomb scenes to ensure an ample food supply
for the deceased in the next life.
Once the Nile waters had receded in the autumn, seed was scattered on the earth
and the plowed into the soil by a peasant who either used a wooden hoe or
followed a plow dragged by two cows. Next, sheep and pigs were set loose on the
plowed area to trample the ground. The harvest was gathered in the spring. The
men worked together in a group and cut the stalks with wooden sickles fitted with
flint blades. Once the short sheaves had been made into bundles, donkeys carried
them to the threshing floor where animals trampled the stalks and separated the
ripe grain from the husks. It was then further separated with a brush and winnowed
by using a wooden scoop to throw it into a high wind before it was sieved. The
byproduct, straw, was set aside for making brick while the corn itself was
measured and kept in sacks in large silos.
The other major product of Egypt was linen. This textile was widely used for
clothing and other domestic purposes as well as for mummy badges. It was
produced from flax, and tomb scenes often show this being gathered. Peasants
worked together in the fields to pull the flax fibers before they bundled them; then
they prepared the material for spinning and weaving.
Cotton cultivation was introduced into Egypt from Nubia during the Coptic Period,
and from the nineteenth century AD it became one of Egypt’s major industries.
Cereals and lien (which was produced to an extremely high quality) were Egypt’s
main exports in antiquity.
The Egyptians were also market gardeners. Whereas irrigation was carried out
only once a year in antiquity (it is now continuous), allowing the fields to be
watered and cultivated, the orchards and gardens near the cultivated basins or
compartments could be used all the time because the river regularly fed them with

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water. The gardeners were assiduous in transporting water to these areas, either
bringing it from the Nile in two large pots suspended from a yoke or using a shaduf.
The shaduf, introduced in the New Kingdom, had a bucket on one end of a rope
that was lowered into the river; this was counterbalanced by a weight at the other
end of the device.
In the gardens near their houses and on the mud dikes the peasants grew beans,
lentils, chickpeas, fenugreek, radishes, onions, cucumbers, lettuces and herbs.
Plants also produced perfumes, dyes, and medicines; oil came from castor oil
plants, Arabian moringa, and the olive tree. Flowers, including cornflowers,
chrysanthemums, and lotus, were also grown in gardens for the production of
bouquets and garlands. Fruits that added variety to their diet included figs, grapes,
sycamore figs and dates, and pomegranates.
Wine production was another major industry. The vine may have been introduced
to Egypt from Asia before 3000BC. Grapes could be picked throughout the year to
provide table grapes and grape juice, but there were regular heavy vintages when

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the grapes were picked and processed before the wine was poured into amphorae
(tall jars with pointed bases) where it was left to age.
The production of papyrus was also important. It was used for writing paper, ropes,
sails, baskets, mats, and sandals. There had always been huge thickets of papyrus
in the marshlands, particularly in the Delta, and later it was grown in cultivated
fields. Laborers cut down the papyrus stems and transported them to workshops
where they were turned into the required products.
In earliest times there was
abundance of animal life in Egypt.
Once hunting had given way to
farming, people began to
domesticate animals. In predynastic
times dogs were trained to hunt and
guard the herds. By the time of the
Old Kingdom donkeys, cows, oxen
and sheep were used for a variety of
agricultural and other tasks, and pigs
were later introduced for trampling
the sown fields.
There were two breeds of oxen in
ancient Egypt, and cows and bulls
roamed the grasslands. Other
animals, kept for meat, milk, and
leather or as sacrificial beasts,
included goats, gazelles and oryx. By

13
selection of the animals in temple herds the Egyptians were able to improve breeds
of sheep and cattle. Birds were also specially bred and fattened for the table. They
included geese, ducks, cranes and pigeons.
Although land cultivation was very important, the population was small enough to
ensure that they were not forced to overwork the land. Large areas of marsh were
left for hunting and fishing. Fishermen used traps and nets to take a wide variety of
fish and nobles made their catches with harpoons. Birds were hunted with
boomerangs and with civets, mongooses, and wold cats; large clap nets were used
to trap quantities of geese and wild duck.

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e. HEALTH
For Egyptians, good health meant wholeness, integration and preservation.
Healing, for them, was the search of wholeness, not just for our bodies, but for our
souls, our minds, our spirits, our relationships, and for the environment around us.
Today’s familiar sign for prescription, Rx, was originated in Ancient Egypt. In the
2nd century, Galen used mystic symbols to impress his patients. Accordingly, he
borrowed the eye of Heru (Horus) from the Egyptian allegory.
The eye symbol has gradually evolved into today’s familiar sign for prescription,
Rx, which is used throughout the world no matter which language is used.
Many of the Egyptian remedies and prescriptions have been passed on to Europe
via the writings of Pliny, Dioscorides, Galen and other Greek writers.
It is evident that the medical science of the Egyptians was sought and appreciated
in foreign countries. Herodotus told us that Cyrus and Darius both sent to Egypt for
medical men. In later times too, they continued to be celebrated for their skill:
Ammianus says it was enough for a doctor to say he had studied in Egypt, to
recommend him. Pliny also mentioned medical men going from Egypt to Rome.
The care which the Egyptians
took of their health was a
source of astonishment for
foreign observed, particularly
Greeks and Romans. Pliny
thought that the large number
of doctors meant that the
population of Egypt suffered
from a great number of
diseases. Herodotus, on the
other land, reported that there
were no healthier people than
the Egyptians.
Ancient sources refer to the
Egyptians, as the healthiest
race of the ancient world.
Herodotus wrote, in the 5th
century BC:
“Of all the nations of the world, Egyptians are the happiest, healthiest and
most religious”.
To heal a person, is to bring that person back into tune, by the deliberate
summoning-up of the specific harmonic phenomena pertinent to the case. Magic

15
for Ancient Egyptians was the profound understanding of cosmic resonance, as
opposed to the current shallow notion, tat magic is a synonym for superstition.
The Ancient Egyptians were reputed to be the cleanest people in the ancient world.
The squalid appearance and unrefined habits of Asiatic Greeks and Romans, with
their long beards, were often the subject of ridicule to the Egyptians. Their
abhorrence of the bearded and long-haired Greeks was so great, that, according to
Herodotus, “no Egyptian of either sex would on any account kiss the lips of a
Greek, make use of his knife, his spit and cauldron, or taste the meat of an animal
which has been slaughtered by his hand”.
Warm as well as cold baths were used by the Egyptians. Egyptians felt obliged to
wash their hands several times a day, but most importantly before and after each
meal. It is common knowledge now that hand washing is an essential preventative
measure. Even the most modest of Ancient Egyptian dwellings had a bathroom of
sorts; these could vary from a very simple installation all the way to the extreme
refinements of the richest villas.
The Egyptians priests took several complete baths every day. They also shaved
their whole body, including eyelashes and eyebrows. It was the same concern for
purity that inspired them to observe chastity. A healthy soul could hardly develop in
a body that was not clean.

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Circumcision of male children was originated in Ancient Egypt, prior to any other
country. The procedure signifies cleanliness as being holiness. This Ancient
Egyptian practice was adopted later by other “religions” and races.
The names and titles of more than a hundred doctors were determined from
archeological findings, with sufficient detail to uncover an overall picture of the
medical practice. The name of Imhotep has become forever linked with Egyptian
medicine, who was later deified and identified with Asklepios, the Greek god of
healing.
As far back as the Old Kingdom, the medical profession was highly organized, with
doctors holding a variety of ranks and specialties. The ordinary doctor was
outranked by the Overseer of doctors, the Chief of doctors, the Eldest of doctors
and the Inspector of doctors. A distinction was made between physicians and
surgeons.
There were eye doctors, bowel specialists (Guardians of the Anus), physicians who
specialized in internal diseases who know the secret and specialize in the body
fluids, nose doctors, sickness of the upper air passages, doctors of the abdomen,
and dentists.
Childbirth was basically the province of the midwives. Herodotus saw in that a sign
of scientific advancement, and the result of truly profound knowledge.
Ta-urt is the Egyptian patroness of women in pregnancy, childbirth, and after birth.
She represents much more than our common understanding of a midwife.
Midwives, among the Ancient and Baladi Egyptians, possess the physical and
metaphysical knowledge of bringing a new baby into the world –body and soul, and
the impact on the mother throughout the entire process.
Some surgical tools and instruments are depicted in tombs and temples, such as:
- The Tomb of Ankh-mahor at Saqqara. Which contains several unique
medical and surgical reliefs. Among them was a flint knife which some
considered as evidence of its remote origin. The most recent surgical
research is vindicating the flint instruments of antiquity. It has been found
that for certain neurological and optical operations, obsidian possesses
qualities that cannot be matched by the finest steel, and an updated version
of the old flint knife is coming back into use.
- On the outer corridor wall of the temple at Kom Ombo, a box of surgical
instruments is carved in relief. The box includes metal shears, surgical
knives, saws, probes, spatulas, small hooks and forceps.
Surgical operations were performed by the Ancient Egyptians, even in predynastic
times. Mummies were found having very neatly cut parts of their skulls, indicating
the nature of the operations; and sometimes the severed section of the skull had
knit to the parent bone, proving that the patient had survived to the operation.

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Although no surgical scars have been reported in mummies (apart from
embalmers’ incisions=, there are thirteen references in the Smith Papyrus to
“stitching”.
The short life span of the ancient Egyptian was due to such diseases as
tuberculosis and respiratory ailments as bronchitis and pneumonia. They also
suffered from parasites absorbed through unclean waters, the dangers of
childbirth, snake bites, polio, rheumatism, scoliosis, appendicitis, meningitis, small
pox, malaria, measles and cholera.
Aspiring doctors underwent many years of hard training at the temple schools,
where they were taught how to cure illnesses and set broken bones. The latter
were treated with rational, medical methods such as plant, animal, mineral
substances and surgical techniques, although the unfamiliar or unknown was
remedied with magic or Heka. Intricate surgery, dream analysis, faith healing,
amulets, herbs and recipes consisting of the most ghastly ingredients were used in
curing illnesses.

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From funerary work, the process of mummification, first-hand knowledge of human
anatomy was acquired, and autopsies were performed as part of the learning
process of the healers. Doctors were trained and specialized in particular fields,
such as the head, internal maladies, gynecology and ophthalmology; texts were
consulted and observations made.
Female doctors exercised their skills and knowledge under the supervision of Lady
Pesheshet, the earliest female physician in history (5th Dynasty). Perhaps the
earliest ophthalmologist was named Iry; he was an oculist and physician to royalty
during the 6th Dynasty.
Dentists filled teeth with mineral cement or a mixture of resin and malachite. Loose
teeth were bound with silver of gold wire as examined mummies have proven. It
appears that silver wire was used during the Late Period. Dentists were in high
demand –tooth decay was a great problem as a result of consuming bread and
cakes mixed with sand from the grinding process. Studies of mummies dated to the
4th Dynasty show surgically-produced holes under a molar that was used to drain
an abscess.
Surgery was successful in the treatment of broken bones as well as in the brain

19
area, where intricate operations were practiced. The pulse was referred to as “the
voice of the heart”, as the ancient Egyptians were cognizant of the fact that the
heart and pulse were synchronized.
Papyrus records of antidotes and cures have been discovered which give a pretty
good picture of the medical beliefs and practices of the times. These texts were
frequently consulted as reference material for treatments which demonstrated the
ancient Egyptian knowledge of medicine, healing, anatomy and autopsy.
One such papyrus, dated 3600 years ago, tells of 100 remedies and antidotes.
Over half involved the use of smoothing honey which cleansed, drid wounds and
accelerated the healing process. The “Ebers Papyrus” contains nearly 900
prescriptions, charms, spells and invocations for any aliment, this papyrus
discusses twelve cases with the relevant spells and has an entire section devoted
to diseases of the eye.
The “Edwin Smith Papyrus” was written in 1700BC and contains 48 surgical
operations, scientific diagnosis and treatments for wounds, fractures, dislocated
and broken bones. These injuries were understood and treated with clinical
methods. Magic was almost exclusively absent in this papyrus. However, it is
believed that the data contained is also based on older texts written during the 3rd
Dynasty. Some scholars believe that Imhotep himself authored this text.
The “London Papyrus” includes medical and magical wisdom believed to have
belonged to the Paraoh Khufu of the 4th Dynaty. The “Gynecological Papyrus”,
dated 1825BC, deals with such treatments as contraception, detecting
pregnancies, evaluating fertility, determining a baby’s gender, bladder problems
and all medical cases related to pregnancy and the female reproductive system.
Many of the ancient Egyptian herbal treatments were highly prized and soon
spread throughout the Mediterranean area as they were practiced with successful
results. Belladonna, poppy and thyme were effective pain relievers and sedatives.
Powdered root of the mandrake plant was used to calm an upset stomach, cure
insomnia, control fear and depression. Henbane was not only used as calming
antidote but like mandrake, was also used in love potions as an aphrodisiac.
Herbs such as myrrh, frankincense, cassia, thyme, opium, juniper, aloe, castor oil
and fennel are mentioned in medical papyri. Garlic was very popular as it helped in
the digestive process, induced vitality and strength while dispelling evil spirits.
Garlic and onions were believed to induce endurance and were consumed
regularly. Raw garlic was taken as a remedy for respiratory ailments. Honey and
milk were prescribed for respiratory and throat ailments. To calm a persistent
cough and moisten dry lungs, a very common problem in the dry climate of the
desert, a concoction of dried figs, dates, aniseed, honey and water was simmered
into a thick mixture and taken as an effective remedy. Tannic acid from the acacia
nut helped heal burns and coriander was prescribed for stomach illnesses as it was

20
thought to contain digestive properties. Henna and saffron were used to mend
small wounds.
The medical potions included such ingredients as blood and fat of an animal,
powdered bones, hooves and horns dissolved in water, milk, beer or wine. Milk and
wine were specifically thought to contain medicinal qualities on their own.
Treatments were inserted into a body cavity and ointments made of honey or fats
along with special diets were often prescribed. Natron was used as an effective
cleanser, disinfectant and healing agent.
The mud of the Nile was incorporated into potions which was believed to rapidly
had wounds. The Nile River was believed to possess healing and rejuvenating
properties. However, one must wonder about the hygienic properties of the Nile.

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f. FOOD
The kitchen was located at the back of the house and would be covered by a roof
of straw or branches to simultaneously block out the scorching Egyptian heat and
allow the escape of cooking fumes. In villas, the kitchen was located entirely
outside the house. A grain storehouse would serve the kitchen, sometimes being
located alongside it or on the roof where it could be reached by stairs.
Tools used by the ancient Egyptians were fairly basic. If there was no fixed oven, a
portable one would be used. This would take the shape of a circular pottery disc
with a hole in the bottom where the fire was lit. If that was not available, ancient
Egyptians would simply use a canon, a small campfire surrounded by a few stones
used to hold the cooking vessel.
Although there is much that we do not know about ancient Egyptian ways of
cooking, the depictions, wall paintings, tools, and cooking vessels discovered over
the years left us a general picture of the methods used. In addition to ovens and
burners, there were also various pots with two handles for cooking, as well as
plates, pans, pitchers, stone and clay urns, baskets to hold food, sieves, and
pestles for grinding. Other implements used included knives to cut meat and
butcher hooks.
Fertile Egyptian soil and the Nile River were main factors in helping the ancient
Egyptians to cultivate a variety of plants and rear livestock. Food sources were
diverse, and ancient Egyptians made good use of the different kinds of fish,
vegetables, poultry, and fruits.
The staple diet of
most Egyptians
consisted of bread
and beer in addition
to what produce the
land yielded, such
as onions, garlic,
lentils, leeks, turnips,
radish, lettuce, and
cucumbers.
Since the
Predynastic period,
ancient Egyptians,
rich or poor,
consumed various
breads made from
different grains.
Flour would

22
generally be mixed with a yeasting agent, salt, and spices, and sometimes with
eggs and butter. The bread could also be filled with legumes of vegetables or
sweetened with honey or dates. The ancient Egyptians also used a fair share of
legumes such as beans, chickpeas, and lentils as well as vegetables such as peas,
lettuce, garlic, onions, and leeks. Dates were the most common fruit, in addition to
figs, grapes, pomegranates, watermelon and plums, all of which appear in
depictions of daily life dating back to the New Kingdom.
Depictions of daily life show the process of making dairy products such as cheese
and butter as well as the extraction of oils like sesame, castor, and radish. The
pharaohs frequently used herbs and spices such as aniseed, thyme, cumin,
cinnamon, fennel, fenugreek, and mustard.
Types of food eaten give a clearer picture of the different social levels in the
ancient Egyptian hierarchy. In the poorest stratum fell the peasants whose staple
diet was bread and beer, and a few simple dishes of vegetables the land
generously yielded to them. When they had meat, it was mainly that of smaller
farm animals since larger livestock were used in agriculture.
Members of the middle or working classes like construction workers, ship-builders,
and laborers were one rung higher in the social ladder, and their professions
entitled them to daily rations. Their food varied between meat and fish with plates
of vegetables, fruit, as well as the common factor of bread and beer.
Egyptians lucky enough to be born into the upper class lived a life of luxury. This
tables were weighed down with various dishes of meat, fish, and game besides all
they desired of vegetables, fruit, breads, and pies. The drink of choice was wine.
The pharaohs were in many senses, gourmets, and the abundance of food sources
in Egypt allowed them to vary their dishes in kind and amount, particularly on
special occasions and al feasts and banquets. But while the ancient Egyptians
loved luxury, when it came to food they were apparently inclined toward
moderation, a prime indication being the lithe bodies depicted in wall paintings and
statues.
Ancient Egyptians ate while seated at small tables laden with different kinds of
meat, poultry, vegetables, fruits, and loaves of bread. Peasants would sit on a
straw mat while the nobles would generally sin on stools or chairs, both eating with
their fingers. Ladies and children would sit on cushions placed on the ground.
Although pharaohs, too, are commonly depicted eating with their fingers, here are
depictions of utensils such as different-shaped plates and bowls for soups and
other foods including sweet goulash, compote, appetizers and cream, as well as
cutting knives, spoons and forks. Forks were used for cooking, not for eating.
Members of the family would probably not meet at breakfast. When the lord of the
house finished washing and dressing, he would be offered a piece of bread and a

23
glass of beer and perhaps a slice of meat and a piece of pie. Main meals were
taken at noon and in the evening, with a lighter meal consumed in the afternoon,
between four and five.
As an agricultural society, ancient Egyptians held celebrations in honor or
Renenutet, the goddess of harvest, and Min, the god of fertility, both of which were
held in the summer. During the month of Keihak, feasts for the ploughing of the
land were held, and the god Osiris was celebrated for being resurrected after death
like the land which dies and then is reborn every season.
Other special occasions that included food were royal feasts like coronations and
anniversaries as well as the feasts of the dead in which families brought food to the
burial places of the deceased. Annual feasts to
honor the gods were also held as well as other
local celebrations specific to each region.
One of the most important religious
celebrations was the New Kingdom Beautiful
Feast of Opet. The feast, which was
important because it renewed the legitimacy of
Opet, would continue for almost a month, and the
king would present many sacrificial offerings
including meat, poultry, fruit, milk, bread, and beer
as well as flowers and perfume.
A celebration generally associated with the
Ancient Egyptians is the Feast of the Harvest,
commonly known today as Sham al-Nessim.
Sham al-Nessim symbolized rebirth, and the
ancient Egyptians believed that this day
marked the beginning of creation. This
particular celebration was famous for its
variety of foods which included full, ripe green
chickpeas that symbolized the coming of
spring, and lettuce, which was popular because of its connection to the Min, god of
fertility and reproduction.

24
g. LINGUISTIC HERITAGE
Ancient Egyptian is the
oldest and longest
continually attested of the
world’s languages. Recent
discoveries have
demonstrated the
existence of Egyptian
hieroglyphic writing with
phonograms as well as
ideograms around
3250BC, roughly
contemporary with the
comparable development
in Mesopotamian
cuneiform, and the last
documents composed in
Coptic, the final stage of
the language, date to the
18th century AD. This extraordinary lifespan of five thousand years is preserved in
a wealth of written material, making it possible to trace the development of the
language through at least three millennia of its history.
Egyptian belongs to the Hamito-Semitic family of languages. It has affinities with
Hamitic languages such as Beja, Berber, and Oromo, and with all the Semitic
languages, including Akkadian, Arabic, and Hebrew. Common Hamito-Semitic
features include consonantal root structures; lexical morphology; two genders,
masculine and feminine; plural; independent and suffix forms of the personal
pronouns; the stative verb form; and non-verbal sentences.
Ancient Egyptian is commonly divided into five historical stages, known as Old,
Middle, and Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic. Significant differences in grammar
separate the first two of these from the last three, so that the stages can be
grouped into two major historical phases, Egyptian I and Egyptian II.
Old Egyptian can be said to begin with the first known instance of a complete
sentence, from a cylinder seal of the pharaoh Peribsen, near the end of the 2nd
Dynasty.
Prior to this, the language is represented solely by proper names, titles, and labels.
Some of the latter, however, contain phrases, demonstrating the existence of
several grammatical features that characterize the later language: in this case,
nisbe formation, adjectival modification, nominal verb forms, and genitival
relationships expressed by direct juxtaposition, including that between a verb and
its subject and consequent vs word order.

25
The first extensive Egyptian texts are inscriptions in the tomb of Methen, whose
career spanned the end of Dynasty III and the beginning of Dynasty IV. Early old
Egyptian is represented by secular texts of Dynasty IV and early Dynasty V and the
Pyramid Texts of late Dynasty V to Dynasty VI; late Old Egyptian is distinguished
from its predecessor mostly by the appearance of the “pseudo-verbal”
constructions subject –hr-stp and subject –r-stp.
The transition between Old and Middle Egyptian is gradual rather than sharp.
Some late Old Egyptian texts contain Middle Egyptian features; conversely, some
of the Coffin Texts and other early Middle Egyptian documents are marked by the
retention of Old Egyptian morphological and grammatical features largely absent
from later texts. Middle Egyptian proper exhibits three major sub-stages: classical,
late and traditional. Classical Middle Egyptian is the language of most texts of the
Middle Kingdom, including the classical literature of ancient Egypt. Late Middle
Egyptian, in use from the Second Intermediate Period through the New Kingdom,
exhibits some features of its successor, Late Egyptian. By the time the latter
appeared in writing, Middle Egyptian had ceased to be a living language. Middle
Egyptian was retained for monumental inscriptions and some religious texts until
the end of hieroglyphic writing, in the form known as Traditional Middle Egyptian,
which is primarily an artificial construct whose grammar was influenced by that of
the contemporary language.
Late Egyptian began to
appear in texts from the
time of Akhenaten
(Dynasty XVIII) and
became the standard
written language in the
succeeding dynasty. It
is attested in two forms,
literary (retaining some
features of Middle
Egyptian) and
colloquial. The latter
exhibits some changes
between its earlier and
later stages, essentially
Dynasties XIX-XX and
Dynasties XX-XXVI,
respectively.
Demotic, first attested in
its distinctive written
form about 650BC, developed directly out of Late Egyptian. It has three major sub-stages:
early, Ptolemaic, and Roman. For the last three centuries of its existence,

26
until the mid-fifth century AD, it existed alongside Coptic, essentially two different
written forms of the same language.

27
h. GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION
Although it had a brief flirtation with monotheism, ancient Egyptian religion was
centered on many gods. There were gods of fertility, gods of the sun, gods of
creation and pretty much everything else that affected the everyday lives of ancient
Egyptians. But apparently the gods were not static. They changed names, merged
with other gods and took on a variety of roles in their long existence.
To please the gods and to ensure a safe and successful journey to the afterlife, the
Egyptians had many spells, prayers and practices to follow. They had trained
priests in glorious temples and pharaohs who were closer to the gods than any
other mortal.
There is no doubt that the pharaoh was the gods’ favorite mortal. Only the king of
all Egypt could be sent to the afterlife from the specially designed and much-labored-
on pyramid.
In many cases, such as Khufu, their entire life was spent overseeing the
construction of their final resting place. He would have priests design a tomb that
aligned with certain stars and spells and prayers carved into the walls. The
Pharaoh would be laid in the burial chamber with many valuable treasures, so he
could take them on his journey. Ramesses II, served long enough as leader of
Egypt to transform from man to god. He professed to have harnessed the power of
Set, Horus, Re and Amun.
The priests were very important in carrying out all the important funerary spells,
documenting the Pharaoh's relationship with the gods and all other forms of
worship. They were the middle man between the Earth and the heavens.
With money, came the ability to pay for safe passage to the afterlife. Government
officials and military leaders were among the nobility group that could afford the
expense of a proper tomb and funeral practices such as embalming.
Commoners may not have received the same privileges, but they paid tribute to the
gods and worshipped them all the same. For fishermen and farmers, keeping the
gods happy was essential to a decent catch or crop.
Egyptians were in awe of the gods and paid their respects diligently. Common
households could contain the statues of protective gods and goddesses. Also a
family wishing to have children sometimes had small statues of fertility gods.
Farmers, being under control of the temples, paid tribute by taking some of their
harvest to the temple of their town.

28
The close association between ancient Egyptian religion and government meant
that schools were attached to temples and those attending were educated by
priests.
Festivals were another way for people to celebrate the Gods. During a festival for a
particular god or goddess a procession was held with a statue carried through the
streets.
Some temples were more than just a place of worship or education in religious
matters, they were literally a home on earth for the appropriate god or goddess. No
one but the highest priest or pharaoh was allowed into the inner sanctums.
By far the most important part of Egyptian religious belief, was that of the afterlife.
Rituals such as mummification and being buried with protective spells and prayers
were treated very seriously. It was considered essential that the body be preserved
so that it could reunite with the soul and maintain the individual’s identity in the
afterlife.

29
Proof of how seriously the Egyptians took their own death can be seen in the
construction of the pyramids. Never has such effort been applied to a construction
that will serve no purpose other than to house the dead.
The highest priest in ancient Egypt and the man closest to the gods was the
pharaoh. The temples reflected his bond with the otherworldly in the forms of
statues and reliefs depicting him larger than life; greater than just a man.
The priests of ancient Egypt had a variety of roles:
- Temple worship - Ancient Egyptian priests were guardians and caretakers of
their temples. It was there job to appease the gods and goddesses that
resided there. Reading prayers and anointing statues were two of the main
rituals.
- Administration - Everyone from overseers, soldiers and scribes reported to
the priests of their respective temple. They would know the facts and figures
for all important aspects of Egyptian economy in their region.
- Education - Because they had to read important prayers and spells it was
essential they were educated in reading and writing. This also qualified them
to teach and the temple was a place of education for those able to afford it.
- Festivals - When celebrating a festival, a priest carried the temple statue in
a public procession.
Daily rituals:
* Break of dawn - As the sun first appeared in the morning, priests sung the
morning hymn in tribute to the gods. The most senior priest would draw back the
bolt on the doors which housed the gods. Incense was lit at this stage.
* Purification - Priests were required to be cleaned before temple work began.
Gods were also symbolically purified before being dressed and cosmetics applied.
* Offerings - Meat, bread, fruit, vegetables and beer were all laid before the gods.
All produce came from surrounding landowners and farmers and was premium
produce, fit for a god.
After the pyramids, Egyptian temples were the next most impressive of ancient
Egypt's architecture. It was the place that represented a god on Earth. They played
diverse roles.

30
 Priests: Temples were Egyptian priest central. The walls were adorned with
hieroglyphs of spells and prayers honoring gods and pharaohs. These were written
by the priests.
Schools: Education was expensive but for those who could afford to have their
boys educated, they would be sent to a temple where they were instructed by a
priest.
Administration: The Egyptian temples owned the land and farmers were required
to pay tribute in the form of part of their harvest.
Egyptian temples were sacred to the point that only a select few saw the inner
sanctum. The deeper into the temple, the less access was granted. The Egyptians
believed that the gods resided in the deepest chambers. It was their home on
Earth. It was this innermost chamber that housed a statue of the god, or goddess,
for that particular temple.
The outer courtyards however were frequented by priests and commoners alike.
This is where the general population left their tributes.
The hypostyle halls were the next stage beyond the courtyards. They were a forest
of columns. The columns were of differing styles and designed to hold up large
sandstone-slab ceilings, as well as provide decoration.
The decorative reliefs on the walls were not reserved for the gods. They were
equally represented by images of the Pharaoh. This demonstrated his closeness to
the gods and god-like stature of his own position.
Light was used in temples to illuminate reliefs, writings and architectural design
with very deliberate engineering. If the building was built to face a particular
direction the light would shine through gaps in the ceiling at a particular time of
day, creating a desired effect.
These are some of the Egyptian temples:
♥ Temple of Karnak: Located near Luxor, this large complex is unique for its
diversity. Temples were built there from the Middle Kingdom right through to
Ptolemaic times. Approximately thirty pharaohs contributed to build it, giving
it many different styles. While a temple represents a particular god, Karnak
represents the triad of Amun-Re, his consort Mut and their son Khons. The
Amun-Re precinct of the temple complex is open to the public.
♥ Cave of Artemis - This name was given during the Greek rule for the below
ground temple. It sits behind a series of tombs and is a monument to the
goddess Pakhet.
♥ Kom Ombo - This temple has been divided into two halves in terms of
worship. One half worships the god Horus, while the other worships Sobek,

31
who was represented by a crocodile. Inside the temple are mummified
crocodiles.
♥ Deir el-Bahri - Another series of mortuary temples that are nestled in cliff
faces. It was here that the successful queen-pharaoh Hatshepsut has her
temple.
♥ Dendra Temple Complex - The 40,000 square meter complex is surrounded
by a thick mud brick wall. The main temple of Hathor was originally
constructed in the Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt but influenced by many
generations all the way up to the Romans.
The ancient Egyptians believed in the body having a Ka, or spirit and after death
the body would be reunited with the Ka. But only with the right procedures and
spells in place.
After death the deceased faces a panel of judges where they will account for their
time on earth. He is then led by Anubis, the jackal-faced god, to the scales where
his heart will be weighed against the feather of Maat, the Goddess of Truth and
Justice. This is perhaps the most important trial in the deceased journey and is well
documented in illustrations in Ancient texts.
If the heart outweighs the feather, it is heavy with the evil doings of the deceased.
This outcome is not a good one and it will be devoured in the jaws of Amuut and he
will face an eternity of oblivion.
If the heart does not outweigh the feather, the deceased will be able to pass
through to Osiris. Illustrations on funerary scenes show that an Ibis-headed god,
Thoth, is recording the results.
It is Horus that leads the deceased through to Osiris. Osiris waits with Isis and
Nephthys and greets the deceased into the afterlife.
The deceased would now continue to live in the afterworld as they did in life. Their
possessions would make the journey too, which is why the tombs were full of items
important for the individual. Food would be provided to provide nourishment to the
deceased.
Spells were needed from the Book of the Dead. These were essential to pass
through the many obstacles sent to test the deceased as they transitioned from life
to death and then back to life again.
Eventually, they could continue to enjoy life as an invisible spirit moving among the
living, but without the pain and hardships of the living world.

32
What we call the Egyptian Book of the Dead was known to the Egyptians as Reu
nu pert em hru translated that means The Chapters of coming forth by day. It is a
collection of chapters made up of magic spells and formulas. It was illustrated and
written on papyrus. These papyri were commissioned by the deceased before their
death. Like most products these text came in different qualities.
This collection of funerary chapters began to appear in Egyptian tombs around
1600 BC. It can be thought of as the deceased's guidebook to a happy afterlife.
The text was intended to be read by the deceased during their journey into the
Underworld. It enabled the deceased to overcome obstacles and not lose their
way. It did this by teaching passwords, giving clues, and revealing routes that
would allow the deceased to answer questions and navigate around hazards. It
would grant the help and protection of the gods while proclaiming the deceased's
identity with the gods. The Papyrus of Ani is one of the finest and most complete
examples of this type of Egyptian funerary text to survive.
Some brief excerpts from the Book of the Dead are:
1-The funeral procession of the royal scribe Ani (from the papyrus of Ani
c.1400BC). The Egyptians believed that the human soul used the first night after
death to travel into the afterlife. However, the body, which the Egyptians believed
was an essential element to the afterlife had to be mummified to preserve it for
eternity. The mummification process took 72 days to perform properly. This was
the time to put finishing touches on the tomb and to pack all the deceased's worldly
possessions, which surely would be needed in the afterlife.
In this picture we see servants or hired hands carrying Ani's home furnishings,
Servants are dragging a chest on which Anubis is sitting, inside the chest is more
of Ani's worldly possessions or perhaps his canopic jars. All of these objects will be
placed in the tomb for his use in the afterlife. In front of them are eight male
mourners dressed in white. Ani's mummy rides on a funerary boat which is being

33
drawn by oxen. Very hard to see in this picture are the
goddesses Isis and Nephthys who are usually shown in this scene protecting the
dead. Ani's wife mourns at his side. The man wearing a leopard skin and turned
back towards Ani's mummy is a priest, he is burning incense.
There are men carrying more of Ani's belongings. The group of women in clothed
in blue are a party of paid, professional mourners who wail and pat dirt on their
heads. This was an Egyptian show of mourning. The cow and calf are food
offerings that will be used for the funeral feast. Ani's mummy stands before
the entrance of his tomb, in the protective embrace of Anubis. His wife mourns at
his feet. Behind her are offerings and three priests. One reads from a papyrus,
while the other two are about to perform an important ceremony called the
"opening of the mouth and eyes." This ceremony was thought to restore the
mummy's ability to see, breathe, eat and drink.
2-Entering the afterlife (from the
papyrus of Hunefer c.1370BC).
Hunefer's mummy stands before the
entrance of his tomb, in the
protective embrace of Anubis. The
two women are probably family
members, they are patting dirt on
their heads, and this was a sign of
mourning. Behind them are three
priests. The priest wearing the
leopard skin (a sign of priesthood)
burns incense and presents offerings
of food and drink, while the other two
are about to perform the important
ceremony of "opening of the mouth". This ceremony was thought to restore the
mummy's ability to see, breathe, eat and drink.

34
3-The hall of Maat (from the papyrus of Hunefer c.1370BC). The Hall of Maat is
where the judgment of the dead was performed. This was done by weighing
one's heart (conscience) against the feather of Maat (truth and justice). Here we
see Anubis leading Hunefer to the scales of Maat. Anubis weights Hunefer's heart
against the feather to see if he is worthy of joining the gods in the Fields of
Peace. Ammut is also present, as a demon waiting to devour Hunefer's heart
should he prove unworthy. Thoth stands to the right of the scales recording the
results. Having passed this test Hunefer is now lead by Horus to meet the King of
the dead, Osiris. The throne of Osiris rests on a pool of water from which a lotus
flower is growing, upon the lotus stand the four sons of Horus. Behind the throne of
Osiris stands Isis and her sister Nephthys.
4-“Sekhet-Hetepet” The fields of
peace (from the papyrus of Ani
c.1400BC). Ani pays his respects
to the gods who dwell in Sekhet-
Hetepet (Fields of Peace) and asks
the gods to help him to enter into
Sekhet-Hetepet so that he may
"become a khu, drink, plow, reap,
fight, make love, never be in a
state of servitude and always be in
a position of authority therein".
The main use for ancient Egyptian
masks was in a funerary sense. It
is believed that the preservation of
the individuals face was important

35
for a successful journey to the afterlife. In case of physical damage, the mask
would protect the person's image and create immortality for them. This was an
important factor in gaining acceptance into their afterworld existence.
Government and religion were inseparable in ancient Egypt. The pharaoh was the
head of state and
the divine
representative of
the gods on earth.
Religion and
government brought
order to society
through the
construction of
temples, the
creation of laws,
taxation, the
organization of
labor, trade with
neighbors and the
defense of the
country's interests.
The pharaoh was
assisted by a
hierarchy of
advisors, priests,
officials and
administrators, who
were responsible for
the affairs of the
state and the
welfare of the
people.
Ancient Egypt could
not have achieved
such stability and
grandeur without
the co-operation of all levels of the population. The pharaoh was at the top of the
social hierarchy. Next to him, the most powerful officers were the viziers, the
executive heads of the bureaucracy. Under them were the high priests, followed by
royal overseers (administrators) who ensured that the 42 district governors carried
out the pharaoh's orders. At the bottom of the hierarchy were the scribes, artisans,
farmers and laborers.

36
The pharaohs began ruling Egypt in 3000 B.C., when Upper and Lower Egypt were
united. During the Old Kingdom (2575-2134 B.C.), they considered themselves to
be living gods who ruled with absolute power. They built pyramids as testimony of
their greatness but left no official records of their achievements.
By the Middle Kingdom, the pharaohs no longer considered themselves to be living
gods, but rather the representatives of the gods on earth. They left records of their
deeds, but these were no more than a string of titles and laudatory epithets.
To reinforce their image as powerful divine rulers, the pharaohs represented
themselves in writings and sculptured reliefs on temple walls. They often depicted
themselves as warriors who single-handedly killed scores of enemies and
slaughtered a whole pride of lions. Similar depictions were repeated by one
pharaoh after another, which leads one to question the validity of the scenes.
Not all the pharaohs were men, nor were they all Egyptian. Before the Greco-
Roman Period, at least three women ascended the throne, the most important
being Queen Hatshepsut. Over several periods, Egypt was dominated by foreign
powers that appointed a king from their own ranks. Exactly how successive
pharaohs were chosen is not entirely clear. Sometimes a son of the pharaoh, or a
powerful vizier (head priest) or feudal lord assumed the leadership, or an entirely
new line of pharaohs arose following the collapse of the former monarchy.
Bureaucracy is not a modern invention; it was conceived by the Egyptians over
5,000 years ago. The creation of a bureaucracy in the Old Kingdom was a key
factor in the inception of the Egyptian civilization. The king was the supreme head
of state. Next to him, the most powerful officer in the hierarchy was the vizier, the
executive head of the bureaucracy. The position of vizier was filled by a prince or a
person of exceptional ability. His title is translated as "superintendent of all works of
the king".
As the supreme judge of the state, the vizier ruled on all petitions and grievances
brought to the court. All royal commands passed through his hands before being
transmitted to the scribes in his office. They in turn dispatched orders to the heads
of distant towns and villages, and dictated the rules and regulations related to the
collection of taxes.
The king was surrounded by the court, friends and favored people who attained
higher administrative positions. The tendency was to fill these positions on the
basis of heredity.

37
i. WAR CONFLICTS
Throughout most of its history, ancient Egypt was unified under one government.
The main military concern for the nation was to keep enemies out. The arid plains
and deserts surrounding Egypt were inhabited by nomadic tribes who occasionally
tried to raid or settle in the fertile Nile river valley. The Egyptians built fortresses
and outposts along the borders east and west of the Nile Delta, in the Eastern
Desert, and in Nubia to the south. Small garrisons could prevent minor incursions,
but if a large force was detected a message was sent for the main army corps.
Most Egyptian cities lacked city walls and other defenses.
The first
Egyptian
soldiers carried
a simple
armament
consisting of a
spear with a
copper
spearhead and
a large wooden
shield covered
by leather hides.
A stone mace
was also carried
in the Archaic
period, though
later this
weapon was
probably only in
ceremonial use,
and was
replaced with
the bronze battle
axe. The spearmen were supported by archers carrying a composite bow and
arrows with arrowheads made of flint or copper. No armour was used during the
3rd and early 2nd Millennium BC. The major advance in weapons technology and
warfare began around 1600 BC when the Egyptians fought and defeated the
Hyksos people, who ruled Lower Egypt at the time. It was during this period the
horse and chariot were introduced into Egypt. Other new technologies included the
sickle sword, body armour and improved bronze casting. In the New Kingdom, the
Egyptian military changed from levy troops into a firm organization of professional
soldiers. Conquests of foreign territories, like Nubia, required a permanent force to
be garrisoned abroad. The Egyptians were mostly used to slowly defeating a much

38
weaker enemy, town by town, until beaten into submission. The preferred tactic
was to subdue a weaker city or kingdom one at a time resulting in surrender of
each fraction until complete domination was achieved. The encounter with other
powerful Near Eastern kingdoms like Mitanni, the Hittites, and later the Assyrians
and Babylonians, made it necessary for the Egyptians to conduct campaigns far
from home. The next leap forwards came in the Late Period (712-332 BC), when
mounted troops and weapons made of iron came into use. After the conquest by
Alexander the Great, Egypt was heavily Hellenized and the main military force
became the infantry phalanx. The ancient Egyptians were not great innovators in
weapons technology, and most weapons technology innovation came from
Western Asia and the Greek world.
These soldiers were paid with a plot of land for the provision of their families. After
fulfilment of their service, the veterans were allowed retirement to these estates.
Generals could become quite influential at the court, but unlike other feudal states,
the Egyptian military was completely controlled by the king. Foreign mercenaries
were also recruited; first Nubians (Medjay), and later also Libyans and Sherdens in
the New Kingdom. By the Persian period Greek mercenaries entered service into
the armies of the rebellious pharaohs. The Jewish mercenaries at Elephantine
served the Persian overlords of Egypt in the 5th century BC. Although, they might
also have served the Egyptian Pharaohs of the 6th century BC.
As far as had been seen from the royal propaganda of the time, the king or the
crown prince personally headed the Egyptian troops into battle. The army could
number tens of thousands of soldiers, so the smaller battalions consisting of 250
men, led by an officer, may have been the key of command. The tactics involved a
massive strike by archery followed by an infantry and/or chariot attacking the
broken enemy lines. The enemies could, however, try to surprise the large
Egyptian force with ambushes and by blocking the road as the Egyptian campaign
records informs us.
Within the Nile valley itself, ships and barges were important military elements.
Ships were vital for providing supplies for the troops. The Nile river had no fords so
barges had to be used for river crossings. Dominating the river often proved
necessary for prosecuting sieges, like the Egyptian conquest of the Hyksos capital
Avaris. Egypt had no navy to fight naval battles at sea before the Late Period.
However, a battle involving ships took place at the Egyptian coast in the 12th
century BC between Ramesses III and seafaring raiders

39
j. INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES
The characteristics of ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of
artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented
and used many simple machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid
construction processes. They used rope trusses to stiffen the beam of ships.
Egyptian paper, made from papyrus, and pottery were mass-produced and
exported throughout the Mediterranean basin. The wheel, however, did not arrive
until foreign influence introduced the chariot in the 16th century BC. The Egyptians
also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology
including ships and lighthouses.
The word paper comes
from the Greek term for
the ancient Egyptian
writing material called
papyrus, which was
formed from beaten strips
of papyrus plants.
Papyrus was produced as
early as 3000 BC in
Egypt, and sold to ancient
Greece and Rome. The
establishment of the
Library of Alexandria
limited the supply of
papyrus for others. As a
result, according to the
Roman historian Pliny,
parchment was invented
under the patronage of
Eumenes II of Pergamon
to build his rival library at
Pergamon.
Egyptian hieroglyphs, a phonetic writing system, served as the basis for the
Phoenician alphabet from which later alphabets were derived. With this ability,
writing and record keeping, the Egyptians developed one of the —if not the— first
decimal system.
The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge to some extent of sail construction. This is
governed by the science of aerodynamics. The earliest Egyptian sails were simply
placed to catch the wind and push a vessel. Later Egyptian sails dating to 2400
BCE were built with the recognition that ships could sail against the wind using the
side wind. Queen Hatshepsut oversaw the preparations and funding of an

40
expedition of five ships, each measuring seventy feet long, and with several sails.
Various others exist, also.
Egyptian knowledge of glassmaking was advanced. The earliest known glass
beads from Egypt were made during the New Kingdom around 1500 BC and were
produced in a variety of colors. They were made by winding molten glass around a
metal bar and were highly prized as a trading commodity, especially blue beads,
which were believed to have magical powers. The Egyptians made small jars and
bottles using the core-formed method. Glass threads were wound around a bag of
sand tied to a rod. The glass was continually reheated to fuse the threads together.
The glass-covered sand bag was kept in motion until the required shape and
thickness was achieved. The rod was allowed to cool, then finally the bag was
punctured and the rod removed. The Egyptians also created the first colored glass
rods which they used to create colorful beads and decorations. They also worked
with cast glass, which was produced by pouring molten glass into a mold, much
like iron and the more modern crucible steel.
The Egyptians were a
practical people and this
is reflected in their
astronomy, in contrast to
Babylonia where the first
astronomical texts were
written in astrological
terms. Even before
Upper and Lower Egypt
were unified in 3000
BCE, observations of
the night sky had
influenced the
development of a
religion in which many of
its principal deities were
heavenly bodies. In
Lower Egypt, priests
built circular mud-brick
walls with which to make
a false horizon where
they could mark the
position of the sun as it
rose at dawn, and then with a plumb-bob note the northern or southern turning
points (solstices). This allowed them to discover that the sun disc, personified as
Ra, took 365 days to travel from his birthplace at the winter solstice and back to it.
Meanwhile in Upper Egypt a lunar calendar was being developed based on the

41
behavior of the moon and the reappearance of Sirius in its heliacal rising after its
annual absence of about 70 days.
After unification, problems with trying to work with two calendars led to a merged,
simplified civil calendar with twelve 30 day months, three seasons of four months
each, plus an extra five days, giving a 365 year day but with no way of accounting
for the extra quarter day each year. Day and night were split into 24 units, each
personified by a deity. A sundial found on Seti I's cenotaph with instructions for its
use shows us that the daylight hours were at one time split into 10 units, with 12
hours for the night and an hour for the morning and evening twilights. However, by
Seti I's time day and night were normally divided into 12 hours each, the length of
which would vary according to the time of year.
Key to much of this was the motion of the sun god Ra and his annual movement
along the horizon at sunrise. Out of Egyptian myths such as those around Ra and
the sky goddess Nut came the development of the Egyptian calendar, time
keeping, and even concepts of royalty. An astronomical ceiling in the burial
chamber of Ramesses VI shows the sun being born from Nut in the morning,
traveling along her body during the day and being swallowed at night.
During the Fifth Dynasty six kings built sun temples in honor of Ra. The temple
complexes built by Niuserre at Abu Gurab and Userkaf at Abusir have been
excavated and have astronomical alignments, and the roofs of some of the
buildings could have been used by observers to view the stars, calculate the hours
at night and predict the sunrise for religious festivals.

42
k. IMPORTANT EDUCATORS OR PEDAGOGIST OF THE
PERIOD
Education in Egypt was largely vocational an apprenticeship served within the
family trade or craft usually under the boy's father. We know something of the
system from the craftsman's community of Dier el-Medina. Boys were taught skills
by their father in the hope of at least on son winning a place in the official corps of
tomb-builders. Those youths who were most likely to be accepted were designated
children of the tomb. They were attached to one of the gangs to do odd jobs and
run, but no doubt primarily to watch and learn until such time as a place became
available for them. Offspring who failed to achieve one of these coveted, lucrative
positions had to leave the village, either to set up as craftsmen elsewhere or to
seek a different type of job.
A more formal, academic education was reserved for those who trained to be
scribes. Elementary schooling for these privileged children, mostly boys, began at
about five years of age and consisted of repeated recitation of lessons as well as
the copying of standard texts. The basic proper may have been a book called
Kemty, which means' completion. The form and style of the surviving copies of this
work indicate that it was composed in the Middle Kingdom, although it was still
used a thousand years later. The reason for its continued popularity as a teaching
book was the simplicity of its language and the fact that the text was set out in
vertical columns rather than horizontal lines, so that the signs were easier for
young children to copy. The contents of the Kemty consisted of model letters
phrases and expressions useful to scribes assorted wisdom texts giving advice to
would be scholars.

43
Having mastered the basics, the student could progress to more advanced text.
The majority of these were classics of Egyptian literature; in particular the wisdom
texts full of pronouncements on morals and behavior for young men who hoped to
achieve some position in life. sage Imhotep wrote such a work, now lost, in the
Third Dynasty and the latest surviving example, the instructions of
Onkhsheshongy, is probably Ptolemaic. These wisdom texts are couched in the
form of a discourse from a learned master, father or teacher to his pupil, A fair
amount of the advice they contained inspired the scholar to diligence. In the words
of the scribe Amenemope, pass on day in idleness or you will be beaten. The ear
of a boy is on his back. He listens when he is beaten.
The final years of scribal training were probably vocational, wither working with a
master or attending on of the specialized schools run by the major employers of
scribes such as the royal palace, government departments, the army or temples, In
these schools the trainee would receive knowledge applicable to jobs future
employment: mathematics surviving for tax assessors, ritual practices or medicine
for future priests, and so on.
At the other end of the social scale and at the lowest level of an Egyptian
household were the servants and salves who performed all the mundane duties,
but who received little reward. To a certain extent the whole of Egypt was in a state
of servitude, for the structure of society was hierarchical and everyone owned duty
to someone at a higher level, and ultimately to Pharaoh, who was the embodiment
of the State, Nevertheless. At the bottom of the heap it becomes difficult to
differentiate be teen the oppressed peasant laborer and those officially designated
as slaves.
Unskilled peasant farmer were attached to an estate belonging to Pharaoh, the
government, a temple or a rich landowner. Their pay was barely more than
subsistence or, they cultivated land, a large percentage of the harvest was taken in
rent and taxes, and this group of people was the main target of Corvee duty.
Forced labor raised specific tasks such as the upkeep of irrigation system
construction of public buildings and cultivation of land, for this work no pay at all
was received, only keep. All but the official classes were obliged to undertaker the
Corvee, but anyone who cloud afford to do so would pay for exemption this
ensuring that the weight of the burden fell on the poor. If, however, the Corvee
workers attempted to run away from their labour, they were classed as fugitives
and, if caught sentenced to permanent servitude spending the time between jobs
on prison, their children then seem to have inherited the parents' status as State
servants.
The Prince's School was the most respected of all of the schools and gave the very
best Ancient Egyptian education. There the sons of the Pharaoh, members of the
royal family, nobles and high officials, would receive education. There was also a
scheme which allowed recommendations when young boys who showed great

44
promise were also allowed in the Prince's school. The Vizier had overall control of
the Prince's school and therefore the education of the next Pharaoh, nobles and
court officials. Curriculum included:
Religious Training
Music and Ceremonial Dance
Reading and Writing and Hieroglyphs
Mathematics and Geometry
History, Geography and Cartography
Science, Astronomy, Astrology, and Medicine

45
l. EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES
The ancient educational system in Egypt was administered and controlled by the
intellectual priests in the theocratic form of government who prevent the multiplicity
of culture. The core curriculum comprised of science, mathematics, medicine,
geometry, and humanities that were in the hands of the Egyptian priests who
taught in formal schools.
There were two types of formal schools for the privileged youth: one for the
scribes, the other for the priest trainees. When a child reached the age of five, he
enters the learning center for writing and continues his studies in reading until he
reach the age of sixteen or seventeen. The learner, at the age of thirteen or
fourteen, would undergo practical training in offices for which they were being
prepared. Methods of instruction and discipline were very strict in order to achieve
the same cultural formation and transmission. Any willful deviation from the
Egyptian culture was strictly forbidden. Exercises and rote memorization were the
typical methods of instruction.
In previous years the Egyptian priests taught their students in temple schools
concerning rudiments of writing, sciences, mathematics, and architecture aside
from religion.
Children would
more and more
frequently were
found lending a
hand with the less
onerous tasks and
gradually acquiring
practical skills and
knowledge from
their elders.
By precept and
example, parents
would instill into
them various
educational
principles, moral
attitudes and views
of life. Thus from a
tender age they
would receive their basic education in the bosom of the family. For girls, this was
usually all the schooling they would get, but for boys it would be supplemented by
proper training in whatever line they chose, or was chosen for them.

46
Education, of course, covers both the general upbringing of a child and its training
for a particular vocation. The upbringing of boys was left largely in the hands of
their fathers, that of girls was entrusted to their mothers. Parents familiarized their
children with their ideas about the world, with their religious outlook, with their
ethical principles, with correct behavior toward others and toward the super-natural
beings in whom everyone believed. They taught them about folk rituals and so
forth.
Educational principles are summarized in a number of ancient Egyptian treatises
now commonly called the Books of Instruction. The advice given in them was
designed to ensure personal success consonant with the needs of the state and
the moral norms of the day.
Truth-telling and fair dealing were enjoined not on any absolute grounds, but as
socially desirable and at the same time more advantageous to the individual than
lying and injustice, whose consequences would rebound against their perpetrator.
The Books of Instruction contain rules for the well-ordered life and elements of
morality that include justice, wisdom, obedience, humanity and restraint.
They mostly took the form of verses addressed by a father to his son as he
stepped into his shoes or started to help his aging parent. Similar admonitions
were delivered by a king to his heir. Most of these books were compiled by senior
officials: humbler scribes, like Ant, only played a part in later times.
Many copies were made of these Books of Instruction, since they also served as
teaching texts in the schools for scribes. Seven complete and five partial texts have
survived, while the existence of others is known from fragments. The one which
appears to be the oldest is by the celebrated, vizier, architect and physician to the
3rd-dynasty pharaoh Djoser.
This text has not survived, but is mentioned in the Harper's Song in the tomb of
King lnyotef. Another is the Instruction Compiled by the Noble and Royal Prince
Hordjedef for His Son. The two authors of these very ancient books were held in
such esteem as to be deified. Of other educational treatises perhaps 3 the most
important is the Instruction of Ptahhotep, City Administrator and First Minister
during the reign of His Majesty Djedkare Isesi, Ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt
during the 5th dynasty. The following passages deal with the art of 'elegant and
effective speech'.
You should only talk when you are sure you know your subject. He who would
speak in council must he a word-smith. Speaking is harder than any other task and
only does credit to the man with perfect mastery.
Be prudent whenever you open your mouth. Your every utterance should be
outstanding, so that the mighty men who listen to you will say: "How beautiful are
the words that fly from his lips"

47
Nevertheless Ptahhotep rates fair dealing higher than learning: You may tell a wise
man from the extent of his knowledge, a noble man by his good deeds.
In contrast to the hierarchic structure of Egyptian society in those days, this
injunction to respect the opinions and knowledge of simple folk has quite a
democratic ring:
Do not boast of your knowledge, but seek the advice of the untutored as much as
the well-educated.
Wise words are rarer than precious stones and may come even from slave-girls
grinding the corn.
Ptahhotep urges his readers to exercise justice and warns against intriguing for
self-aggrandizement, bribery, extortion of debts from those unable to pay and
insatiable accumulation of property. His manual abounds in concrete advice on
how to behave in various situations - at banquets, in the exercise of high office,
towards friends, wives, petitioners, paupers and so on.
The spiritual high-point in this
genre is reached in the
Instruction of Amenemope at
the end of the 2nd
millennium BC, some of
which is closely comparable
with passages in the Old
Testament Book of Proverbs.
It includes, for example, this
call for justice and
forbearance toward the poor
and widows:
Do not covet the boundary-stone
in the field nor shift the
surveyor's rope; do not covet
a cubit of your neighbor's
land nor tamper with the
widow's land-bounds.
Covet neither the poor farmer’s property nor hunger after his bread; the peasant's
morsel will surely gag in the throat and revolt the gullet.
If the poor man is found to owe you a great debt, divide it three ways; remit two
parts and let the third stand. That, you will see, is the best way in this life;
thereafter you will sleep sound and in the morning it will seem like good tidings; for
it is better to be praised for neighborly love than to have riches in your storeroom;

48
better to enjoy your bread with a good conscience than to have wealth weighed
down by reproaches.
Never let a powerful man bribe you to oppress a weak one for his own benefit.
There is a similar foretaste of Christian morality where Amenemope urges
consideration toward the afflicted:
Mock not the blind nor deride the dwarf nor block the cripple's path; don't tease a
man made ill by a god nor make outcry when he blunders.
In the surprisingly developed moral code revealed by these excerpts, virtue will be
rewarded for reasons that can be summarized as follows: behave justly toward
your god, your king, your superiors and your inferiors too; in return you will enjoy
health, long life and respect.
When judging the dead, god will deal with you in accordance with your past
conduct. Those you leave behind, too, will be glad to acknowledge your good
deeds by reciting life-giving words and by bringing gifts to ensure your life eternal
... The supreme aim of the Egyptian moral system was to help maintain harmony
and order in the world created by god and maintained by the king.
Alongside the inculcation of general rules of morality there was, of course, formal
vocational training. Young men did not usually choose their own careers.
Herodotus and Diodorus refer explicitly to hereditary callings in ancient Egypt.
This was not in fact a system of rigid inheritance but an endeavor, as one Middle
Kingdom stele puts it, to pass on a father's function to his children. Several other
sources confirm that this happened with the consent of the king or his
plenipotentiaries. Thus we find throughout Egyptian history a tendency for even the
highest offices to remain in the same families.
Towards the end of the Middle Kingdom, for example, there was a virtually dynastic
line of viziers, and in the Ramessid period the offices of the supreme priests of
Amun were passed on from father to son. It was in any case common practice for
an official to take on his son as an assistant. so that the succession became more
or less automatic. This was also the implication of joint rule at the royal level. A son
was commonly referred to as 'the staff of his father's old age', designed to assist
him in the performance of his duties and finally to succeed him. Even if the
Instructions of Ant declare that 'offices have no offspring.
From an early age they would be going out to the fields, boys and girls alike, to
lend a hand in simple tasks like gathering and winnowing the corn, tending poultry
and in time cattle, and so forth. Fishermen, boatmen and others would also take
their young folk along with them for practical experience.
Pictures of craftsmen at work, on the other hand, rarely show children present.
There is one of a boy handing a leg of meat to a butcher; other examples show a

49
lad helping an older man to smooth down a ceramic vessel, and a boy playing in a
row of musicians. In the army youngsters were used as grooms and batmen.
Writings of the Roman Period contain some interesting data about the training of
weavers and spinning-girls. A test was probably given at the end of the
apprenticeship. At this time weavers usually sent their children to be taught by
colleagues in the same trade. The master undertook, if he failed to get his pupil
through the whole course, to return whatever payment the father had advanced for
the apprenticeship.
Kingdom each scribe taught his successor - usually his son - individually. From the
First Intermediate Period onwards there is evidence of whole classes run for
trainees in this field. In the New Kingdom they existed in the capital city of Thebes
(there was one in the Ramesseum, for example, and a second purportedly at Deir
el-Medina) and in later times such institutions were run at other centers too. These
were not of course true schools in the sense of independent bodies with full-time
teachers. All major offices such as the royal chancelleries, military headquarters
and the
The ancient Egyptians nevertheless held education in high regard and saw it as a
privilege. A few talented individuals without formal schooling still managed to
acquire sufficient knowledge to shine in their own field. And there were of course
plenty who tried, as everywhere, to compensate for their lack of education by
intriguing or currying favor in high places - sometimes as high as royalty.

51
a. TIME LOCATION
Mesopotamia
is one of the
cradles of
human
civilization.
Here, the
earliest cities
in world
history
appeared,
about 3500
BC.
Mesopotamia
was not only
the oldest
urban
civilization,
but also the
most
urbanized
society of
antiquity.
Form the mid-fourth
millennium
BC onwards,
cities were in
existence in
Babylonia
(southern
Mesopotamia
), and despite
many
vicissitudes
they never
disappeared entirely from the landscape. Urbanism may have emerged only later
in Assyria (northern Mesopotamia), but soon some Assyrian cities became gigantic
in extent. At their most flourishing, the most important Mesopotamian cities
dwarfed their contemporaries in the rest of the ancient world, to the amazement of
Greeks, such as Aristotle, who could not consider Babylon to be a city, but only as
the equivalent of a nation because of its enormous dimensions.

52
b. GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION
"Mesopotamia" is a Greek word meaning, "land between the Rivers". The region is
a vast, dry plain through which two great rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris, flow.
These rivers rise in mountain ranges to the north before flowing through
Mesopotamia to the sea. As they approach the sea, the land becomes marshy,
with lagoons, mud flats, and reed banks. Today, the rivers unite before they empty
into the Persian Gulf, but in ancient times the sea came much further inland, and
they flowed into it as two separate streams.
The land is too dry to grow many crops on. As a result, much of it has been - and is
still - home to herders of sheep and goat. These nomads move from the river
pastures in the summer to the desert fringes in the winter, which get some rain at
this time of year. At various times they have had a large impact on Mesopotamian
history.

53
Near the rivers themselves, the soil is extremely fertile. It is made up of rich mud
brought down by the rivers from the mountains, and deposited over a wide area
during the spring floods. When watered by means of irrigation channels, it makes
some of the best farmland in the world.
The marshy land near the sea also makes very productive farmland, once it had
been drained. Here, the diet is enriched by the plentiful supply of fish to had from
the lagoons and ponds.
It is this geography which gave rise to the earliest civilization in world
history. Agriculture is only possible in the dry climate of Mesopotamia by means of
irrigation. With irrigation, however, farming is very productive indeed. A dense
population grew up here along the Tigris and Euphrates and their branches in the
centuries after 5000 BC. By 3500 BC, cities had appeared. The surplus food grown
in this fertile landscape enabled the farming societies to feed a class of people who
did not need to devote their lives to agriculture. These were the craftsmen, priests,
scribes, administrators, rulers and soldiers who made civilization possible.
Surrounded by mountains in the north and east and desert in the west and
bounded in the south by the Persian Gulf, ancient Mesopotamia was shaped by its
two rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. These provided water for agriculture and daily
life and were the main highways for communication. Major environmental
differences divided Mesopotamia unto two distinct regions, the northern plains of
Assyria and the southern Babylonian alluvium. Further differences split Babylonia
into a northern river plain (Akkad) and a more southerly delta plain (Sumer). These
geographical contrasts were mirrored by cultural, political, and economic
distinctions. Marshes divides Babylonia from Elam, the eastern alluvial plain and
adjacent Zagros Mountains, a land whose history frequently intertwined with that of
Mesopotamia. At times, cities and states beyond the desert and the mountains
were also involved with Mesopotamia, while mountain and desert fringes were
home to tribal groups who frequently raided their settled neighbors.

54
c. NATURAL RESOURCES
Mesopotamia soon became a very powerful and a resource which filled area for
these people. In the beginning, natural wildlife and vegetation kept them fed while
they began to build their new world. They wove baskets from the weeds that grew
on the riverbanks, since their land was in between two rivers, and made pottery
from the wet clay or mud they found. Even though it did not rain much, the settlers
soon learned that if you irrigated land correctly, crops grew quite quickly. They
were very intelligent and built canals to bring water to the land from the rivers. This
is how they got their drinking and bathing water. They also used it to help grow
crops. Sumerians were able to use timber, metals and stones they found from the
nearby mountains for building. They used what they had, and used the resources
available to them as best they could. Being friendly and trading with neighboring
lands was also very important because there were resources that were not
available to them, that were in countries close by.
The fertile land along the rivers
was used for producing such
crops as wheat, barley,
sesame, and flax. They also
planted dates, cucumbers,
apples, onions, and a variety of
spices. They raised sheep,
goats, and cows. They
slaughtered many of their
animals, but also knew how to
use the wool from sheep, and
took milk from their cows.
People soon learned how to
pound wool and goat hair into
felt, or weave it into cloth. Even
though they were able to stay in
one place and farm, hunting
was still a very important food source. Sumerians hunted wild birds and kinds of
deer and gazelle for food. Some other creatures living in Mesopotamia were fish,
duck, goats, sheep and pigs. They were able to tame these animals, to eat.
The land is too dry to grow many crops on. As a result, much of it has been - and is
still - home to herders of sheep and goat. These nomads move from the river
pastures in the summer to the desert fringes in the winter, which get some rain at
this time of year. At various times they have had a large impact on Mesopotamian
history.

55
Near the rivers themselves, the soil is extremely fertile. It is made up of rich mud
brought down by the rivers from the mountains, and deposited over a wide area
during the spring floods. When watered by means of irrigation channels, it makes
some of the best farmland in the world.
The marshy land near the sea also makes very productive farmland, once it had
been drained. Here, the diet is enriched by the plentiful supply of fish to had from
the lagoons and ponds.
It is this geography which gave rise to the earliest civilization in world
history. Agriculture is only possible in the dry climate of Mesopotamia by means of
irrigation. With irrigation, however, farming is very productive indeed. A dense
population grew up here along the Tigris and Euphrates and their branches in the
centuries after 5000 BC. By 3500 BC, cities had appeared. The surplus food grown
in this fertile landscape enabled the farming societies to feed a class of people who
did not need to devote their lives to agriculture. These were the craftsmen, priests,
scribes, administrators, rulers and soldiers who made civilization possible.
The vast herds
of sheep which
constituted such
a large segment
of the herding
sector in the
ancient
Mesopotamian
economy
provided the
bulk of the raw
material needed
for the textile
industry. In
contrast to this
relatively
unpromising
situation, a
wealth of
information exists in cuneiform sources on the Mesopotamian textile industry
during the Ur III period. With linen playing a quantitatively small if elite role and
cotton unknown until the late periods, wool was by far the most important material
used for the manufacture of textiles in Mesopotamia.
Animal bone was used throughout the Old World for making a wide variety of tools
and non-utilitarian objects from the Paleolithic era onwards. For the most part

56
studies of bone objects in Mesopotamia give no indication of which animals were
most exploited. However, it is most likely that sheep/goat, followed by cattle,
equids and swine provided the bulk of the bone used to fashion implements and
decorative fixtures.
Clay is a major constituent of the sediment deposited whenever the Tigris and
Euphrates flood their banks. A wide range of other utilitarian items, including
spindle whorls, sling balls, mullers, hammers, hoes, axes and sickles, as well as
figurines, beads and cones for wall decoration were made of clay.
Alongside baked mudbrick and limestone, the most durable material available in
ancient Mesopotamia was without doubt bitumen or asphalt. Various sources of
bitumen were exploited in antiquity, principally in the area of modern Khuzistan on
either side of the Karun River, in the east Tigris region heading towards the Zagros
Mountains, around Ur, near Mosul and in the Hit-Ramadi area on the Middle
Euphrates. One of the domains for which we have the most information concerns
the use of bitumen in boatbuilding and repair. Given the importance of water
transport in a area like southern Mesopotamia this is certainly one of the most
significant contexts in which bitumen was put to use.
A wide variety of pendants, seals, beads, vessels and architectural elements were
made of limestone throughout southern Mesopotamia’s ling history. During the
Uruk and Jamdat Nasr periods most of the important religious buildings at Uruk,
including the Limestone Temple, the Stone Cone Temple, the Riemchengebäude,
Temple-Palace E and the Stone Building incorporated important elements of white,
grey-white and yellow-white limestone in their fabric.

57
d. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
In agriculture, the
Mesopotamians
grew a variety of
crops, including
wheat, barley,
onions, grapes,
turnips, and apples.
They kept cattle,
sheep and goats;
they made beer and
wine.
The rivers Tigris
and Euphrates, and
their branches,
made life possible
for the
Mesopotamians.
However, they
could be wild rivers,
and floods were
frequent. The
Mesopotamians
were the first
people to attempt to
control water on a
large scale by the
use of an integrated
system of dams,
reservoirs, canals,
drainage channels
and aqueducts. Maintaining, repairing and extending this system was seen as one
of the prime duties of a king. The water control system was built up generation by
generation, covering an ever wider area and involving an ever denser network of
waterways.
Farming was still important, but other jobs became important too. Bakers made
bread from many families. Weavers spun wool and wove it into cloth. Leather
crafters made sandals. At least 12 of the towns grew into true cities where
thousands of people lived and worked.
As a result of the large and concentrated population which grew up in
Mesopotamia, farming was carried out by peasants rather than by slaves (mass
slavery tends to be a response to a shortage of labor). In early times these were

EGYPT AND MESOPOTAMIA.

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