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Biology in Focus - Chapter 27
1.
CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN
FOCUS © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson • Reece Lecture Presentations by Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge 27 The Rise of Animal Diversity
2.
Overview: Life Becomes
Dangerous Most animals are mobile and use traits such as strength, speed, toxins, or camouflage to detect, capture, and eat other organisms For example, the chameleon captures insect prey with its long, sticky, fast-moving tongue © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
3.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.1
4.
Current evidence
indicates that animals evolved from single-celled eukaryotes similar to present-day choanoflagellates More than 1.3 million animal species have been named to date; the actual number of species is estimated to be nearly 8 million Concept 27.1: Animals originated more than 700 million years ago © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
5.
Fossil and Molecular
Evidence Fossil biochemical evidence and molecular clock studies date the common ancestor of all living animals to the period between 700 and 770 million years ago Early members of the animal fossil record include the Ediacaran biota, which dates from about 560 million years ago © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
6.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.2 (a) Dickinsonia costata (taxonomic affiliation unknown) 2.5 cm (b) The fossil mollusc Kimberella 1 cm
7.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.2a (a) Dickinsonia costata (taxonomic affiliation unknown) 2.5 cm
8.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.2b (b) The fossil mollusc Kimberella 1 cm
9.
Early-Diverging Animal Groups
Sponges and cnidarians are two early-diverging groups of animals © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
10.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.UN01 Other animal groups Sponges Cnidarians
11.
Animals in
the phylum Porifera are known informally as sponges Sponges are filter feeders, capturing food particles suspended in the water that passes through their body Water is drawn through pores into a central cavity and out through an opening at the top Sponges lack true tissues, groups of cells that function as a unit Sponges © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
12.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.3 Water flow Pores Choanocyte Flagellum Food particles in mucus Collar Choanocyte Phagocytosis of food particles Amoebocyte Amoebocytes Azure vase sponge (Callyspongia plicifera) Spicules
13.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.3a Azure vase sponge (Callyspongia plicifera)
14.
Choanocytes, flagellated
collar cells, generate a water current through the sponge and ingest suspended food Morphological similarities between choanocytes and choanoflagellates are consistent with the hypothesis that animals evolved from a choanoflagellate-like ancestor Amoebocytes are mobile cells that play roles in digestion and structure © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
15.
Like most
animals, members of the phylum Cnidaria have true tissues Cnidarians are one of the oldest groups of animals, dating back to 680 million years ago Cnidarians have diversified into a wide range of both sessile and motile forms, including hydrozoans, jellies, and sea anemones Cnidarians © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
16.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Video: Clownfish Anemone Video: Coral Reef Video: Hydra Budding Video: Hydra Eating Video: Jelly Swimming Video: Thimble Jellies
17.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.4 (c) Anthozoa(a) Hydrozoa (b) Scyphozoa
18.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.4a (a) Hydrozoa
19.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.4b (b) Scyphozoa
20.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.4c (c) Anthozoa
21.
The basic
body plan of a cnidarian is a sac with a central digestive compartment, the gastrovascular cavity A single opening functions as mouth and anus Cnidarians are carnivores that use tentacles to capture prey Cnidarians have no brain, but instead have a noncentralized nerve net associated with sensory structures distributed throughout the body © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
22.
Concept 27.2: The
diversity of large animals increased dramatically during the “Cambrian explosion” The Cambrian explosion (535 to 525 million years ago) marks the earliest fossil appearance of many major groups of living animals © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
23.
Strata formed
during the Cambrian explosion contain the oldest fossils of about half of all extant animal phyla Evolutionary Change in the Cambrian Explosion © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
24.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.5 Echinoderms Sponges Cnidarians Chordates Brachiopods Annelids Molluscs Ediacaran Arthropods 635 Cambrian PALEOZOICPROTEROZOIC 605 Time (millions of years age) 575 545 515 485 0
25.
Fossils from
the Cambrian period include the first hard, mineralized skeletons Most fossils from this period are of bilaterians, a clade whose members have a complete digestive tract and a bilaterally symmetric form © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
26.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.6 Hallucigenia fossil (530 mya) 1 cm
27.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.6a
28.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.6b Hallucigenia fossil (530 mya) 1 cm
29.
There are
several hypotheses regarding the cause of the Cambrian explosion and decline of Ediacaran biota New predator-prey relationships A rise in atmospheric oxygen The evolution of the Hox gene complex © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
30.
Dating the Origin
of Bilaterians Molecular clock estimates date the bilaterians to 100 million years earlier than the oldest fossil, which lived 560 million years ago The appearance of larger, well-defended eukaryotes 635–542 million years ago indicates that bilaterian predators may have originated by that time © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
31.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.7 15 µm (a) Valeria (800 mya): roughly spherical, no structural defenses, soft-bodied (b) Spiny acritarch (575 mya): about five times larger than Valeria and covered in hard spines 75 µm
32.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.7a 15 µm (a) Valeria (800 mya): roughly spherical, no structural defenses, soft-bodied
33.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.7b (b) Spiny acritarch (575 mya): about five times larger than Valeria and covered in hard spines 75 µm
34.
Concept 27.3: Diverse
animal groups radiated in aquatic environments Animals in the early Cambrian oceans were very diverse in morphology, way of life, and taxonomic affiliation © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
35.
Animal Body Plans
Zoologists sometimes categorize animals according to a body plan, a set of morphological and developmental traits There are three important aspects of animal body plans Symmetry Tissues Body cavities © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
36.
Symmetry Animals can
be categorized according to the symmetry of their bodies or lack of it Some animals have radial symmetry, with no front and back or left and right © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
37.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.8 (b) Bilateral symmetry (a) Radial symmetry
38.
Two-sided symmetry
is called bilateral symmetry Bilaterally symmetrical animals have A dorsal (top) side and a ventral (bottom) side A right and left side Anterior (head) and posterior (tail) ends Many also have sensory equipment concentrated in the anterior end, including a brain in the head © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
39.
Radial animals
are often sessile or planktonic (drifting or weakly swimming) Bilateral animals often move actively and have a central nervous system enabling coordinated movement © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
40.
Tissues Animal body
plans also vary according to the organization of the animal’s tissues Tissues are collections of specialized cells isolated from other tissues by membranous layers During development, three germ layers give rise to the tissues and organs of the animal embryo © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
41.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.9 Digestive tract (from endoderm) Body covering (from ectoderm) Tissue layer lining body cavity and suspending internal organs (from mesoderm) Body cavity
42.
Ectoderm is
the germ layer covering the embryo’s surface Endoderm is the innermost germ layer and lines the developing digestive tube, called the archenteron Cnidarians have only these two germ layers Mesoderm is a third germ layer that fills the space between the ectoderm and the endoderm in all bilaterally symmetric animals © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
43.
Body Cavities Most
bilaterians possess a body cavity (coelom), a fluid- or air-filled space between the digestive tract and the outer body wall The body cavity may Cushion suspended organs Act as a hydrostatic skeleton Enable internal organs to move independently of the body wall © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
44.
The Diversification of
Animals Zoologists recognize about three dozen animal phyla Phylogenies now combine molecular data from multiple sources with morphological data to determine the relationships among animal phyla © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Video: C. Elegans Crawling Video: Earthworm Locomotion Video: Echinoderm Tubefeet Video: Nudibranchs Video: Rotifer
45.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.10 ANCESTRAL PROTIST 770 million years ago 680 million years ago 670 million years ago Arthropoda Nematoda Annelida Mollusca Brachiopoda Ectoprocta Rotifera Platyhelminthes Chordata Echinodermata Metazoa Hemichordata Cnidaria Ctenophora Porifera EcdysozoaLophotrochozoa Bilateria Deuterostomia Eumetazoa
46.
The following points
are reflected in the animal phylogeny 1. All animals share a common ancestor 2. Sponges are basal animals 3. Eumetazoa is a clade of animals (eumetazoans) with true tissues 4. Most animal phyla belong to the clade Bilateria and are called bilaterians 5. Most animals are invertebrates, lacking a backbone; Chordata is the only phylum that includes vertebrates, animals with a backbone © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
47.
Bilaterian Radiation I:
Diverse Invertebrates Bilaterians have diversified into three major clades Lophotrochozoa Ecdysozoa Deuterostomia © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
48.
An Overview of
Invertebrate Diversity Bilaterian invertebrates account for 95% of known animal species They are morphologically diverse and occupy almost every habitat on Earth This morphological diversity is mirrored by extensive taxonomic diversity The vast majority of invertebrate species belong to the Lophotrochozoa and Ecdysozoa; a few belong to the Deuterostomia © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
49.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11 Arthropoda (1,000,000 species) Nematoda (25,000 species) Annelida (16,500 species) Mollusca (93,000 species) Ectoprocta (4,500 species) Ectoprocts EcdysozoaLophotrochozoa Echinodermata (7,000 species) Hemichordata (85 species) Deuterostomia An octopus A roundworm A web-building spider (an arachnid) Sea urchins and a sea star An acorn worm A fireworm, a marine annelid
50.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11a Annelida (16,500 species) Mollusca (93,000 species) Ectoprocta (4,500 species) Ectoprocts Lophotrochozoa An octopus A fireworm, a marine annelid
51.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11aa Ectoprocta (4,500 species) Ectoprocts
52.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11ab Mollusca (93,000 species) An octopus
53.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11ac Annelida (16,500 species) A fireworm, a marine annelid
54.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11b Arthropoda (1,000,000 species) Nematoda (25,000 species) Ecdysozoa A roundworm A web-building spider (an arachnid)
55.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11ba Nematoda (25,000 species) A roundworm
56.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11bb Arthropoda (1,000,000 species) A web-building spider (an arachnid)
57.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11c Echinodermata (7,000 species Hemichordata (85 species) Deuterostomia Sea urchins and a sea star An acorn worm
58.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11ca Hemichordata (85 species) An acorn worm
59.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.11cb Echinodermata (7,000 species) Sea urchins and a sea star
60.
Arthropod Origins Two
out of every three known species of animals are arthropods Members of the phylum Arthropoda are found in nearly all habitats of the biosphere © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
61.
The arthropod
body plan consists of a segmented body, hard exoskeleton, and jointed appendages This body plan dates to the Cambrian explosion (535–525 million years ago) Early arthropods show little variation from segment to segment © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
62.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.UN02 A fossil trilobite
63.
Arthropod evolution
is characterized by a decrease in the number of segments and an increase in appendage specialization These changes may have been caused by changes in Hox gene sequence or regulation © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
64.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.12 Red indicates regions in which Ubx or abd-A genes were expressed. Other ecdysozoans Arthropods Onychophorans Common ancestor Origin of Ubx and abd-A Hox genes? Ant = antenna J = jaws L1–L15 = body segments Experiment Results
65.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.12a Red indicates regions in which Ubx or abd-A genes were expressed. Ant = antenna J = jaws L1–L15 = body segments Results
66.
Bilaterian Radiation II:
Aquatic Vertebrates The appearance of large predatory animals and the explosive radiation of bilaterian invertebrates radically altered life in the oceans One type of animal gave rise to vertebrates, one of the most successful groups of animals © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
67.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.13
68.
The animals
called vertebrates get their name from vertebrae, the series of bones that make up the backbone Vertebrates are members of phylum Chordata Chordates are bilaterian animals that belong to the clade of animals known as Deuterostomia © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
69.
Early Chordate Evolution
All chordates share a set of derived characters Some species have some of these traits only during embryonic development Four key characters of chordates Notochord, a flexible rod providing support Dorsal, hollow nerve cord Pharyngeal slits or pharyngeal clefts, which function in filter feeding, as gills, or as parts of the head Muscular, post-anal tail © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
70.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Video: Clownfish Anemone Video: Coral Reef Video: Manta Ray Video: Sea Horses
71.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.14 Muscle segments Notochord Post-anal tail Anus Mouth Dorsal, hollow nerve cord Pharyngeal slits or clefts
72.
Lancelets are
a basal group of extant, blade-shaped animals that closely resemble the idealized chordate Tunicates are another early diverging chordate group, but they only display key chordate traits during their larval stage The ancestral chordate may have looked similar to a lancelet © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
73.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.15 (a) Lancelet (b) Tunicate
74.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.15a (a) Lancelet
75.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.15b (b) Tunicate
76.
In addition
to the features of all chordates, early vertebrates had a backbone and a well-defined head with sensory organs and a skull Fossils representing the transition to vertebrates formed during the Cambrian explosion © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
77.
The Rise of
Vertebrates Early vertebrates were more efficient at capturing food and evading predators than their ancestors The earliest vertebrates were conodonts, soft- bodied, jawless animals that hunted prey using a set of barbed hooks in their mouth There are only two extant lineages of jawless vertebrates, the hagfishes and lampreys © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
78.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16 Chondrichthyes ActinistiaActinopterygii Myxini Tetrapoda Petromyzontida Dipnoi Chondrichthyes (sharks, rays, chimaeras) Actinistia (coelacanths) Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) Myxini (hagfishes) Tetrapoda (amphibians, reptiles, mammals) Petromyzontida (lampreys) Dipnoi (lungfishes) Limbs with digits Lobed fins Lungs or lung derivatives Jaws, mineralized skeleton Vertebral column Common ancestor of vertebrates Tetrapods Lobe-fins Osteichthyans Gnathostomes Vertebrates
79.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16a Chondrichthyes (sharks, rays, chimaeras) Actinistia (coelacanths) Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) Myxini (hagfishes) Tetrapoda (amphibians, reptiles, mammals) Petromyzontida (lampreys) Dipnoi (lungfishes) Limbs with digits Lobed fins Lungs or lung derivatives Jaws, mineralized skeleton Vertebral column Common ancestor of vertebrates Tetrapods Lobe-fins Osteichthyans Gnathostomes Vertebrates
80.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16b Chondrichthyes ActinistiaActinopterygiiMyxini Tetrapoda Petromyzontida Dipnoi
81.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16ba Myxini
82.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16bb Petromyzontida
83.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16bba
84.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16bbb
85.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16bc Chondrichthyes
86.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16bd Actinopterygii
87.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16be Actinistia
88.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16bf Dipnoi
89.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.16bg Tetrapoda
90.
Today, jawed
vertebrates, or gnathostomes, outnumber jawless vertebrates Early gnathostome success is likely due to adaptations for predation including paired fins and tails for efficient swimming and jaws for grasping prey © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Video: Lobster Mouth Parts
91.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.17 0.5 m
92.
Gnathostomes diverged
into three surviving lineages, chondrichthyans, ray-finned fishes, and lobe-fins Humans and other terrestrial animals are included in the lobe-fins © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
93.
Chondrichthyans include
sharks, rays, and their relatives The skeletons of chondrichthyans are composed primarily of cartilage This group includes some of the largest and most successful vertebrate predators © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
94.
Ray-finned fishes
include nearly all the familiar aquatic osteichthyans The vast majority of vertebrates belong to the clade of gnathostomes called Osteichthyes Nearly all living osteichthyans have a bony endoskeleton © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
95.
Lobe-fins are
the other major lineage of osteichthyans A key derived trait in the lobe-fins is the presence of rod-shaped bones surrounded by a thick layer of muscle in their pectoral and pelvic fins Three lineages survive: the coelacanths, lungfishes, and tetrapods, terrestrial vertebrates with limbs and digits © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
96.
Concept 27.4: Several
animal groups had features facilitating their colonization of land Some bilaterian animals colonized land following the Cambrian explosion, causing profound changes in terrestrial communities © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
97.
Early Land Animals
Members of many animal groups made the transition to terrestrial life Arthropods were among the first animals to colonize the land about 450 million years ago Vertebrates colonized land 365 million years ago © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
98.
The evolutionary
changes that accompanied the transition to terrestrial life were much less extensive in animals than in plants © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Video: Bee Pollinating Video: Butterfly Emerging
99.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.18 GREEN ALGA MARINE CRUSTACEAN AQUATIC LOBE-FIN Derived (roots) N/A N/A LAND PLANTS INSECTS TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES N/A Derived (lignin/stems) Derived (vascular system) Derived (cuticle) Derived (stomata) Derived (tracheal system) Ancestral Ancestral Ancestral Ancestral Derived (amniotic egg/scales) Ancestral Ancestral Ancestral (skeletal system) Derived (limbs) Ancestral Anchoring structure Support structure Internal transport Muscle/ nerve cells Protection against desiccation Gas exchange TERRESTRIAL ORGANISM CHARACTER AQUATIC ANCESTOR
100.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.18a GREEN ALGA Derived (roots) LAND PLANTS N/A Derived (lignin/stems) Derived (vascular system) Derived (cuticle) Derived (stomata) Anchoring structure Support structure Internal transport Muscle/nerve cells Protection against desiccation Gas exchange TERRESTRIAL ORGANISM CHARACTERAQUATIC ANCESTOR
101.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.18b Anchoring structure Support structure Internal transport Muscle/nerve cells Protection against desiccation Gas exchange TERRESTRIAL ORGANISM CHARACTERAQUATIC ANCESTOR MARINE CRUSTACEAN N/A INSECTS Derived (tracheal system) Ancestral Ancestral Ancestral Ancestral
102.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.18c Anchoring structure Support structure Internal transport Muscle/nerve cells Protection against desiccation Gas exchange TERRESTRIAL ORGANISM CHARACTERAQUATIC ANCESTOR AQUATIC LOBE-FIN N/A TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES Derived (amniotic egg/scales) Ancestral Ancestral Ancestral (skeletal system) Derived (limbs) Ancestral
103.
Colonization of Land
by Arthropods Terrestrial lineages have arisen in several different arthropod groups, including millipedes, spiders, crabs, and insects © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
104.
General Characteristics of
Arthropods The appendages of some living arthropods are modified for functions such as walking, feeding, sensory reception, reproduction, and defense © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
105.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.19 Cephalothorax Swimming appen- dages (one pair per abdominal segment) Abdomen Antennae (sensory reception) Thorax Head Pincer (defense) Mouthparts (feeding) Walking legs
106.
The body
of an arthropod is completely covered by the cuticle, an exoskeleton made of layers of protein and the polysaccharide chitin The exoskeleton provides structural support and protection from physical harm and desiccation A variety of organs specialized for gas exchange have evolved in arthropods © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
107.
Insects The insects
and their relatives include more species than all other forms of life combined They live in almost every terrestrial habitat and in fresh water © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
108.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.20 Lepidopterans Hymenopterans Hemipterans
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.20a Lepidopterans
110.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.20aa
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.20ab
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.20b Hymenopterans
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.20c Hemipterans
114.
Insects diversified
several times following the evolution of flight, adaptation to feeding on gymnosperms, and the expansion of angiosperms Insect and plant diversity declined during the Cretaceous extinction, but has been increasing in the 65 million years since © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
115.
Flight is
one key to the great success of insects An animal that can fly can escape predators, find food, and disperse to new habitats much faster than organisms that can only crawl © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
116.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.21
117.
Terrestrial Vertebrates One
of the most significant events in vertebrate history was when the fins of some lobe-fins evolved into the limbs and feet of tetrapods © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
118.
The Origin of
Tetrapods Tiktaalik, nicknamed a “fishapod,” shows both fish and tetrapod characteristics It had Fins, gills, lungs, and scales Ribs to breathe air and support its body A neck and shoulders Fins with the bone pattern of a tetrapod limb © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
119.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.22 Fish Characters Neck Shoulder bones Head Fin Ulna Flat skull Eyes on top of skull Humerus Ribs Scales Fin skeleton Elbow Radius “Wrist” Tetrapod Characters Scales Fins Gills and lungs Neck Ribs Fin skeleton Flat skull Eyes on top of skull
120.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.22a Neck Shoulder bones Head Fin Flat skull Eyes on top of skull
121.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.22b Ribs
122.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.22c Scales
123.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.22d Ulna Humerus Fin skeleton Elbow Radius “Wrist”
124.
Tiktaalik could
most likely prop itself on its fins, but not walk Fins became progressively more limb-like over evolutionary time, leading to the first appearance of tetrapods 365 million years ago © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
125.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.23 Lungfishes Eusthenopteron Panderichthys Tiktaalik Acanthostega Tulerpeton Amphibians Amniotes Limbs with digits Silurian PermianCarboniferousDevonian PALEOZOIC Key to limb bones Time (millions of years ago) 415 340355370385400 325 280295310 265 0 Ulna Radius Humerus
126.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.23a Silurian PermianCarboniferousDevonian PALEOZOIC Key to limb bones Time (millions of years ago) 415 340355370385400 325 280295310 265 0 Ulna Radius Humerus Lungfishes Eusthenopteron Panderichthys Tiktaalik Lobe-fins with limbs with digits
127.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.23b Silurian PermianCarboniferousDevonian PALEOZOIC Key to limb bones Time (millions of years ago) 415 340355370385400 325 280295310 265 0 Ulna Radius Humerus Acanthostega Tulerpeton Amphibians Amniotes Limbs with digits
128.
Amphibians Amphibians are
represented by about 6,150 species including salamanders, frogs, and caecilians Amphibians are restricted to moist areas within their terrestrial habitats © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
129.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Video: Marine Iguana Video: Flapping Geese Video: Snake Wrestling Video: Soaring Hawk Video: Swans Taking Flight Video: Tortoise
130.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.24 Salamanders retain their tails as adults. Caecilians have no legs and are mainly burrowing animals. Frogs and toads lack tails as adults.
131.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.24a Salamanders retain their tails as adults.
132.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.24b Frogs and toads lack tails as adults.
133.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.24c Caecilians have no legs and are mainly burrowing animals.
134.
Terrestrial Adaptations in
Amniotes Amniotes are a group of tetrapods whose living members are the reptiles, including birds, and mammals Amniotes are named for the major derived character of the clade, the amniotic egg, which contains membranes that protect the embryo The extraembryonic membranes are the amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois The amniotic eggs of most reptiles and some mammals have a shell © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
135.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Video: Bat Licking Video: Bat Pollinating Video: Chimp Agonistic Video: Chimp Cracking Nut Video: Gibbon Brachiating Video: Sea Lion Video: Shark Eating Seal Video: Wolves Agonistic
136.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.25 Amniotic cavity with amniotic fluid Yolk (nutrients) Albumen Yolk sac Shell ChorionAllantois Amnion Embryo Extraembryonic membranes
137.
The Origin and
Radiation of Amniotes Living amphibians and amniotes split from a common ancestor about 350 million years ago Early amniotes were more tolerant of dry conditions than early tetrapods The earliest amniotes were small predators with sharp teeth and long jaws © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
138.
Reptiles are
one of two living lineages of amniotes Members of the reptile clade includes the tuataras, lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodilians, birds, and some extinct groups © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
139.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26 Tuataras Squamates Birds Crocodilians Turtles † Plesiosaurs † Pterosaurs † Ornithischian dinosaurs † Saurischian dinosaurs other than birds Crocodilians Birds Turtles Tuataras Squamates Common ancestor of dinosaurs Common ancestor of reptiles
140.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26a † Plesiosaurs † Pterosaurs † Ornithischian dinosaurs † Saurischian dinosaurs other than birds Crocodilians Birds Turtles Tuataras Squamates Common ancestor of dinosaurs Common ancestor of reptiles
141.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26b Tuataras Squamates Birds Crocodilians Turtles
142.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26ba Crocodilians
143.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26bb Birds
144.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26bba
145.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26bbb
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26bc Turtles
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26bd Tuataras
148.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.26be Squamates
149.
Reptiles have
scales that create a waterproof barrier Most reptiles lay shelled eggs on land Most reptiles are ectothermic, absorbing external heat as the main source of body heat Birds are endothermic, capable of keeping the body warm through metabolism © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
150.
Mammals are
the other extant lineage of amniotes There are many distinctive traits of mammals including Mammary glands that produce milk Hair A fat layer under the skin A high metabolic rate, due to endothermy Differentiated teeth © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
151.
The first
true mammals evolved from synapsids and arose about 180 million years ago By 140 million years ago, the three living lineages of mammals had emerged Monotremes, egg-laying mammals Marsupials, mammals with a pouch Eutherians, placental mammals © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
152.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.27 Monotremes Marsupials Eutherians
153.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.27a Monotremes
154.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.27aa
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.27ab
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.27b Marsupials
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© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.27c Eutherians
158.
Human Evolution Humans
(Homo sapiens) are primates, nested within a group informally called apes © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
159.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.28 New World monkeys Old World monkeys Humans Chimpanzees and bonobos Gorillas Orangutans Gibbons “Apes”
160.
A number
of characters distinguish humans from other apes Upright posture and bipedal locomotion Larger brains capable of language, symbolic thought, artistic expression, and the use of complex tools © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
161.
The evolution
of bipedalism preceded the evolution of increased brain size in early human ancestors Brain size, body size, and tool use increased over time in Homo species Modern humans, H. sapiens, originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago and colonized the rest of the world from there © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
162.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.29
163.
Concept 27.5: Animals
have transformed ecosystems and altered the course of evolution The rise of animals from a microbe-only world affected all aspects of ecological communities, in the sea and on land © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
164.
Ecological Effects of
Animals The oceans of early Earth likely had very different properties than the oceans of today © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
165.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.30 (b) Changes to ocean conditions by 530 mya (a) Ocean conditions before 600 mya Murky, poorly-mixed Low oxygen Cyanobacteria Clear, well-mixed High oxygen Eukaryotic algae
166.
Marine Ecosystems The
rise of filter-feeding animals likely caused the decline of cyanobacteria and other suspended particles in the oceans during the early Cambrian This resulted in a shift to algae as the dominant producers and changed the feeding relationships in marine ecosystems © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
167.
Terrestrial ecosystems
were transformed with the move of animals to land Herbivores, such as the lesser snow goose, can improve the growth of plants at low population sizes through additions of nutrient-rich wastes At high population sizes herbivores can defoliate large tracts of land Terrestrial Ecosystems © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
168.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.31
169.
Evolutionary Effects of
Animals The origin of mobile, heterotrophic animals with a complete digestive tract drove some species to extinction and initiated ongoing “arms races” between bilaterian predators and prey © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
170.
Evolutionary Radiations Two
species that interact can exert strong, reciprocal selective pressures on one another For example, flower form can be influenced by the structure of its pollinators’ mouth parts, and vice versa © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
171.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.32
172.
Reciprocal selection
pressures can also occur when the origin of new species in one group stimulates further radiation in another group For example, the origin of a new group of animals provides new food sources for parasites, resulting in radiations in parasite groups © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
173.
Human Impacts on
Evolution Humans have made large changes to the environment that have altered the selective pressures faced by many species For example, human targeting of large fish for harvesting has led to the reduction in age and size at which individuals reach sexual maturity © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
174.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.33 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Year 7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 Ageatmaturity(years)
175.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.33a
176.
Rapid species
declines over the past 400 years indicate that human activities may be driving a sixth mass extinction Molluscs, including pearl mussels, have suffered the greatest impact of human-caused extinctions © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
177.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.34 Workers on a mound of pearl mussels killed to make buttons (ca. 1919) An endangered Pacific island land snail, Partula suturalis Recorded extinctions of animal species Other invertebrates Reptiles (excluding birds) Molluscs Insects Fishes Birds Mammals Amphibians
178.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.34a Recorded extinctions of animal species Other invertebrates Reptiles (excluding birds) Molluscs Insects Fishes Birds Mammals Amphibians
179.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.34b An endangered Pacific island land snail, Partula suturalis
180.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.43c Workers on a mound of pearl mussels killed to make buttons (ca. 1919)
181.
The major
threats imposed on species by human activities include habitat loss, pollution, and competition or predation by introduced, non-native species © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
182.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.UN03 Southern periwinkles Northern periwinkles Southern Northern Averagenumberof periwinkleskilled Source population of crab 6 4 2 0
183.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.UN04 Origin and diversification of dinosaurs365 mya: Early land animals Diversification of mammals 535–525 mya: Cambrian explosion 560 mya: Ediacaran animals Millions of years age (mya) Neo- proterozoic Paleozoic 1,000 Era 542 251 Mesozoic 65.5 Ceno- zoic 0
184.
© 2014 Pearson
Education, Inc. Figure 27.UN05
Notes de l'éditeur
Figure 27.1 What adaptations make a chameleon a fearsome predator?
Figure 27.2 Ediacaran fossils
Figure 27.2a Ediacaran fossils (part 1: Dickinsonia costata)
Figure 27.2b Ediacaran fossils (part 2: Kimberella)
Figure 27.UN01 In-text figure, sponges and cnidarians mini-tree, p. 529
Figure 27.3 Anatomy of a sponge
Figure 27.3a Anatomy of a sponge (photo)
Figure 27.4 Major groups of cnidarians
Figure 27.4a Major groups of cnidarians (part 1: hydrozoa)
Figure 27.4b Major groups of cnidarians (part 2: scyphozoa)
Figure 27.4c Major groups of cnidarians (part 3: anthozoa)
Figure 27.5 Appearance of selected animal groups
Figure 27.6 A Cambrian seascape
Figure 27.6a A Cambrian seascape (part 1: painting)
Figure 27.6b A Cambrian seascape (part 2: Hallucigenia)
Figure 27.7 Indirect evidence of the appearance of bilaterians?
Figure 27.7a Indirect evidence of the appearance of bilaterians? (part 1: Valeria)
Figure 27.7b Indirect evidence of the appearance of bilaterians? (part 2: spiny acritarch)
Figure 27.8 Body symmetry
Figure 27.9 Tissue layers in bilaterians
Figure 27.10 A current hypothesis of animal phylogeny
Figure 27.11 Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians
Figure 27.11a Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 1: Lophotrochozoa)
Figure 27.11aa Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 1a: Ectoprocta)
Figure 27.11ab Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 1b: Mollusca)
Figure 27.11ac Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 1c: Annelida)
Figure 27.11b Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 2: Ecdysozoa)
Figure 27.11ba Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 2a: Nematoda)
Figure 27.11bb Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 2b: Arthropoda)
Figure 27.11c Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 3: Deuterostomia)
Figure 27.11ca Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 3a: Hemichordata)
Figure 27.11cb Exploring the diversity of invertebrate bilaterians (part 3b: Echinodermata)
Figure 27.UN02 In-text figure, fossil trilobite, p. 536
Figure 27.12 Inquiry: Did the arthropod body plan result from new Hox genes?
Figure 27.12a Inquiry: Did the arthropod body plan result from new Hox genes? (results)
Figure 27.13 Myllokunmingia fengjiaoa, a 530-million-year-old chordate
Figure 27.14 Chordate characteristics
Figure 27.15 Present-day basal groups of chordates
Figure 27.15a Present-day basal groups of chordates (part 1: lancelet)
Figure 27.15b Present-day basal groups of chordates (part 2: tunicate)
Figure 27.16 Exploring vertebrate diversity
Figure 27.16a Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 1: tree)
Figure 27.16b Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2: photos)
Figure 27.16ba Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2a: Myxini)
Figure 27.16bb Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2b: Petromyzontida)
Figure 27.16bba Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2ba: lamprey)
Figure 27.16bbb Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2bb: lamprey mouth)
Figure 27.16bc Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2c: Chondrichthyes)
Figure 27.16bd Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2d: Actinopterygii)
Figure 27.16be Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2e: Actinistia)
Figure 27.16bf Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2f: Dipnoi)
Figure 27.16bg Exploring vertebrate diversity (part 2g: Tetrapoda)
Figure 27.17 Fossil of an early gnathostome
Figure 27.18 Descent with modification during the colonization of land
Figure 27.18a Descent with modification during the colonization of land (part 1: plants)
Figure 27.18b Descent with modification during the colonization of land (part 2: insects)
Figure 27.18c Descent with modification during the colonization of land (part 3: vertebrates)
Figure 27.19 External anatomy of an arthropod
Figure 27.20 Insect diversity
Figure 27.20a Insect diversity (part 1: lepidopterans)
Figure 27.20aa Insect diversity (part 1a: butterfly)
Figure 27.20ab Insect diversity (part 1b: caterpillar)
Figure 27.20b Insect diversity (part 2: hymenopterans)
Figure 27.20c Insect diversity (part 3: hemipterans)
Figure 27.21 Ladybird beetle in flight
Figure 27.22 Discovery of a “fishapod”: Tiktaalik
Figure 27.22a Discovery of a “fishapod”: Tiktaalik (part 1: detail)
Figure 27.22b Discovery of a “fishapod”: Tiktaalik (part 2: ribs)
Figure 27.22c Discovery of a “fishapod”: Tiktaalik (part 3: scales)
Figure 27.22d Discovery of a “fishapod”: Tiktaalik (part 4: fin skeleton)
Figure 27.23 Steps in the origin of limbs with digits
Figure 27.23a Steps in the origin of limbs with digits (part 1: lobe-fins with limbs without digits)
Figure 27.23b Steps in the origin of limbs with digits (part 2: lobe-fins with limbs with digits)
Figure 27.24 Amphibian diversity
Figure 27.24a Amphibian diversity (part 1: salamanders)
Figure 27.24b Amphibian diversity (part 2: frogs and toads)
Figure 27.24c Amphibian diversity (part 3: caecilians)
Figure 27.25 The amniotic egg
Figure 27.26 Exploring reptilian diversity
Figure 27.26a Exploring reptilian diversity (part 1: tree)
Figure 27.26b Exploring reptilian diversity (part 2: photos)
Figure 27.26ba Exploring reptilian diversity (part 2a: crocodilians)
Figure 27.26bb Exploring reptilian diversity (part 2b: birds)
Figure 27.26bba Exploring reptilian diversity (part 2ba: wings and feathers)
Figure 27.26bbb Exploring reptilian diversity (part 2bb: “honeycombed” bone)
Figure 27.26bc Exploring reptilian diversity (part 2c: turtles)
Figure 27.26bd Exploring reptilian diversity (part 2d: tuataras)
Figure 27.26be Exploring reptilian diversity (part 2e: squamates)
Figure 27.27 The major mammalian lineages
Figure 27.27a The major mammalian lineages (part 1: monotremes)
Figure 27.27aa The major mammalian lineages (part 1a: spiny anteater)
Figure 27.27ab The major mammalian lineages (part 1b: monotreme egg)
Figure 27.27b The major mammalian lineages (part 2: marsupials)
Figure 27.27c The major mammalian lineages (part 3: eutherians)
Figure 27.28 The human evolutionary tree
Figure 27.29 Early fossils of Homo sapiens
Figure 27.30 A sea change for Earth’s oceans
Figure 27.31 Effects of herbivory
Figure 27.32 Results of reciprocal selection
Figure 27.33 Reproducing at a younger age
Figure 27.33a Reproducing at a younger age (photo)
Figure 27.34 The silent extinction
Figure 27.34a The silent extinction (part 1: pie chart)
Figure 27.34b The silent extinction (part 2: snail)
Figure 27.34c The silent extinction (part 3: workers)
Figure 27.UN03 Skills exercise: understanding experimental design and interpreting data
Figure 27.UN04 Summary of key concepts: Cambrian explosion
Figure 27.UN05 Test your understanding, question 7 (brain size)
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