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2. Objectives:
 Presentation of the Beginner’s mind Assignment
 Demonstrate the ability to define theory and explain
how theories can change over time:
 Introduce the modern school of thoughts in Sociology
(the classical paradigms):
 Explain the key components of structural functionalism,
conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism
 Introduce new theoretical approaches;
 Explain the key tenets of feminist theory, queer theory,
and postmodern theory
 Give a brief introduction of common research
methods in social sciences: the tools of the
sociological imagination uses to study society
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3. Assignment: Analyzing everyday
life
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4. Entering the theoretical zone…
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5. What is a Theory?
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 Attempts to understand the (social) world and our place in
it, has led to the development of theories
 Theories are abstract propositions about how things
are as well as how they should be (an explanation of how
we think things work)
 We refer to theories as approaches, schools of
thought (implying that they are different schools of
thought), paradigms or perspectives.
 Social theories are guiding principles or abstract
models that attempt to explain and predict the
social world
 A theory is comparable to a map. When you
discover new places, you have to modify this map

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Is there something like ‘down’ or
‘above’? ‘down’ and ‘above’
become relative…

7. Theories are dynamic, they
change…
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 Theories have to be tested:
 That’s what scientifically research is all about!
 We develop theories and test them, modify them
to fit the reality better, why?
 Theories will change over time, because their
area of study they seek to understand and
explain:
Society, itself changes over time
 Theories seek to understand society in periods of
both order and change
 Social change makes theoretical change a
continual necessity

8. Example of a theoretical model:
“the social change model”
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9. Modern schools of thought
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10. Modern school of thoughts:
paradigms
 Theoretical umbrellas: they have explanatory
broad power
 None of them on their own can give an entirely
explanation of a whole social phenomena, each
one gives its specific answers
These are:
 Structural Functionalism
 Conflict theory
 Symbolic interactionism

11. 1. Structural Functionalism (1)
 The 2 words can give an idea of this approach:
structure and function
 Founding fathers: Comte, Spencer and Durkheim
Tenets:
 Society is a stable, ordered system of interrelated
parts of the structures
 Each structure has a function that contributes to
the continued stability or equilibrium of the whole

12. Structural Functionalism (2)
 Structures defined as social institutions like the family, the
educational system, politics, religion, mass media systems,
and the economy
 Structures meet the need of society by performing different
functions:
 What would be the functions of above mentioned social
institutions? (in terms of manifest* vs. latent** functions)
 Dysfunction: a disturbance to or undesirable consequence
of some aspect of the social system
 Harmony & stability
*Manifest: the obvious intended functions of a social
institution (or social system
** Latent: the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions
of a social structure

13. 2. Conflict theory
 Proposes conflict and tension as basic facts of social
life and suggests that people have disagreements
over goals and values and are involved in struggles
over both resources and power
 Theory focuses on dominance, competition and social
change
 Founding father: Marx
Tenets:
1. A materialistic view of society (focused on labor
practices and economic reality, we play by the rules
(roles and functions) of these social systems
2. A critical stance towards existing social
arrangements (labor market, democracy, inequality
between social groups)
3. A dynamical model of historical change in which the
transformation of society is inevitable (change)

14. 3. Symbolic Interactionism
 Most influential
 Founding father: Mead
Tenets:
1. We act toward things on the basis of their
meanings
2. Individual, social groups meaning to experience
of life: we negotiate meaning
3. Meanings can change or be modified through
interaction and through time

15. Changing meanings of the concept of
beauty for teenagers(1975 vs. 2010):

16. New theoretical Approaches
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17. New Paradigms in Sociology
 Because all 3 major paradigms have weakness
as well as strengths, they will probably never fully
explain the totality of social phenomena, even
when taken together
 New perspectives will, and indeed must, continue
to rise
 Changes in society, bring changes in our
conceptual way of studying it
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18. Three contemporary approaches
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 Each is linked to a major contemporary social
transformation:
 Changing ideas about gender roles
 Changing notions of sexual identity
 And the changes associated with a
postindustrial, technologically
based society

19. 1. Feminist theory
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 Looks at gender inequalities in society and the
way gender structures the social world
 Gender is a social construct

20. E.g. A feminist analysis of female fairy tale characters
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22. 2. Queer theory
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 Proposes that categories of sexual identity are
social constructs and that no sexual category is
fundamentally either deviant or normal

23. 2. Postmodern theory
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 Suggests that there is no universal, knowable
truth: realities are fluid and diverse
 The kaleidoscope metaphor

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Perspective Focus of Analysis
Structural- Functionalism Assumes that society is a unifies whole
that functions because of the contributions
of its separate structures
Conflict theory Sees social conflict as the basis of society
and social change emphasizes a
materialist view of society, a critical view of
the status quo and a dynamic model of
historical change
Symbolic interactionism Asserts that interaction and meaning are
central to society and assumes that
meanings are not inherent but are created
through interaction
Feminist theory Looks at gender inequalities in society and
the way gender structures the social world
Queer theory Questions the basis of all social categories,
including but not limited to those involving
sexuality
Postmodernist theory Suggests that social reality is diverse,
pluralistic and constantly in flux

26. Introduction to common research
methods to study society
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27. Studying social life:
Sociological research methods (1)
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 Distinction between Quantative and Qualitative
research methods
 Quantative: uses data that can easily be
converted into numbers, such as a survey or an
experiment
 E.g. Censo 2010

28. Studying social life:
Sociological research methods (2)
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 Qualitative: involves data that cannot easily be
converted to numbers, such as observation or
informal interviews.
 Most sociological research uses the scientific method
 This is the standard for acquiring and verifying
empirical scientific knowledge:
 After conducting a literature review, a researcher
forms a hypothesis stating a potential relationship
between 2 or more variables:
 The number of friendships at the work & the level of job
satisfaction
 e.g. more friendships at the workplace increases job
satisfaction
 Variables must be clearly defined so that they can be
measured

29. A social scientist is like an
explorer
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30. Steps of the scientific Method
1. Identify a
problem or
ask a
question
2. Conduct
a literature
review
3. Form a
hypothesis:
give
operational
definitions to
variables
4.
Choose
a
research
design
or
method
5. Collect
data
6. Analyze
data
7.Dissemi
nate
findings
Starting from 1 to
7 = Deductive
research
Starting from 5 (4)
to 1 = Inductive
research
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31. 1. Ethnographic methods
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 One way to collect data is through ethnography, a
method based on studying people in their own
environment in order to understand the meanings
they attribute to their activities
 It involves:
 Active participation in and observation of a naturally
occurring setting and a written account (field notes)
of what goes on there.
 In participant observation the research observes
and becomes a member in the social setting
 Anthropology uses this method often

32. Ethnography:
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Snow white joined
the 7 dwarfs in their
private homes, here
she could observe
their social practices

33. Interviews
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 Involves direct, face-to-face contact with
respondents.
 The researcher identifies the target population
that she wishes to study and then selects a
sample of people to be interviewed from that
population
 close-ended questions:
 E.g. Are you for or against the legislation of
abortus? (yes-no)
 open-ended question:
 What is your opinion about legalizing abortus?
please elaborate…
 What do you think of married couples cheating on

34. Surveys
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 Surveys are questionnaires that are administrated
to a sample of respondents selected from a target
group population
 Tend to look at Large-scale social patterns and
employs statistics methods of analysis
 http://www.censo2010.aw/

35. Experimental methods
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 Experiments are formal test of whether an
independent variable causes the dependent
variable that are performed in a controlled setting
where all aspects of the situation can be
controlled.
 Comparison between experimental group vs.
control group (sample without intervention)
 Experiments in social science are very difficult to
conduct because of ethical questions:
 Twins separated at birth, one grows-up in a nice
family, one in a dysfunctional family?

36. Pill to make you dance at a party
when you don’t like dancing
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Control: she
takes a placebo
pill
Experiment:
she takes the
to be tested
pill

37. Issues in Social science research
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 Social scientists/researches should be Value-
free
 Code of ethics to avoid bias, protect
respondents from harms, privacy issues and
unethical behavior in the name of science etc.
 On the wikispace you can find examples of
different code of ethics for social sciences

38. E.g. Unethical research
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http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/
02/health/research/02infect.html?
_r=1&ref=todayspaper
Article trackback:

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Awakening the
sociological
imagination:
“Studying =
feeling like a
space traveler,
flying above earth,
fascinated by its
organizing
ecology &
exploring its
encoded
meanings”
N.D.L.

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Social Scientists…