This document discusses different types of prevention and enhancement in psychology. It defines: 1) Primary prevention as actions taken to reduce the likelihood of future problems by targeting populations not yet experiencing issues. This can be universal or selective. 2) Secondary prevention as psychotherapy interventions aimed at eliminating or reducing problems once they appear. 3) Primary enhancement as efforts to establish optimal functioning and satisfaction, either through pleasure/needs or effective goal pursuit. 4) Secondary enhancement as augmenting positive levels to reach ultimate performance and satisfaction, such as through meaning in life.

1. 1. Primary prevention: "Stop the bqd before it happens.“
2. Secondary prevention (psychotherapy): "Fix the
problem.“
3.Primary enhancement: "Make life good."
4.Secondary enhancement: "Make life the best possible."

2. primary preventions reflect actions that people take to
lessen or remove the likelihood of subsequent
psychological difficulties (Heller, Wyman, & Allen, 2000)
or physical problems (Kaplan, 2000)
With primary preventions, people are not yet manifesting
any problems, and it is only later that such problems will
appear if appropriate protective, or prophylactic, steps are
not taken

3. When primary prevention is aimed at an entire
community population, it is called universal prevention
(e.g., childhood immunizations);
when focused on a particular at-risk population, it is
called selective prevention (e.g., home visitations for
low-birth-weight children; Munoz & Mendelson, 2004)

4. As Snyder et al. (2000, p. 256) put it, "We would suggest
that prevention is, at its core, an act of hope-a positive,
empowered view of one's ability to act so as to attain better
tomorrows.
a prevention need not entail a full understanding of a
given problem or disease

5. Primary prevention sometimes may occur at the
governmental level.
By setting and enforcing laws that allow people to succeed
because of their merits and efforts, for example, a
government can lessen subsequent negative
consequences for its citizens (Snyder & Feldman, 2000).

6. when citizens perceive that laws allow equitable
opportunities to pursue goal-directed
activities, they then should /would
(1) become less frustrated and aggressive (an
aspect of the frustration-aggression hypothesis [Zillman,
1979]);
(2) Continue to exert effort in their work settings and
personal lives (the negative utcome here has been called
learned helplessness [Peterson, Maier, &Seligman, 1993]);
and
(3) be less likely to attempt suicides (RodriguezHanley
& Snyder, 2000)

7. Durlak and Wells examined the effectiveness of
prevention programs on children's and adolescents'
behavioral and social problems;
they found that the preventions yielded effective
outcomes similar in magnitude (and in some cases
superior) to medical procedures such as cancer
chemotherapy and coronary bypass surgery.
Moreover, Durlak andWells observed that, relative to
control-group participants, those in the prevention
programs were anywhere from 59% to 82% better off in
terms of reduced problem behaviors and increased
competencies.

8. Heller etal. Have given five suggestions for implementing
successful primary preventions
1.the targeted populations should be given knowledge
about the risky behavior to be prevented
2. the program should be attractive
3. Teach problem-solving skills as well as how to resist
regressing into previous counterproductive patterns
4. the program should change any norms or social
structures that reinforce counterproductive behaviors
5. evaluation

9. The work of Shure and Spivak (Shure, 1974; Shure &
Spivak, 1988; Spivak & Shure, 1974) is exemplary in
teaching problem-solving skills to children who were
likely to use inappropriate, impulsive responses when
encountering interpersonal problems.
the children were taught to come up with ways other than
aggressive outbursts to reach their goals

10. Using Seligman's learned optimism model, Gillham,
Reivich, Jaycox, and Seligman (1995) implemented
a 12-week primary prevention program to fifth- and sixth-
grade children
The prevention program helped children to identify
negative, self-referential beliefs and to change their
attributions to more optimistic and realistic ones
Relative to a control group of children who did not
receive this prevention package, those in the experimental
group were significantly lower in depression; these
findings were directly linked to their learning to make
more optimistic attributions

11. Snyder et al. (2000, p. 256) have described secondary
prevention as occurring when "the individual produces
thoughts or actions to eliminate, reduce, or contain the
problem once it has appeared.“
Secondary prevention is synonymous with psychotherapy
interventions.

12. Jerome Frank (1968, 1973, 1975) suggested that hope was
the underlying process common to all successful
psychotherapy approaches.
Snyder and his colleagues have used hope theory to show
how pathways and agency goal-directed thinking
facilitate successful outcomes in psychotherapy

13. Most psychotherapy approaches have used what Berg and
de Shazer (1992) call "problem talk" rather than "solution
talk.“
a client sometimes must unlearn negative thoughts and
behaviors before learning positive ones

14. Bandura's self-efficacy model
According to this model, a client can learn efficacy beliefs
through
(1) actual performance accomplishments in the
problematic area,
(2) modeling another person who is coping effectively,
(3) verbal persuasion by the helper, and
(4) controlling negative cognitive processes by learning to
implement positive moods

15. Meichenbaum's (1977) self-instructional training-part of
CBM
1.gathering information about
the problem, including maladaptive cognitions
2. the client is taught more adaptive internal dialogues
3. the client practices these new coping dialogues in order
to strengthen the likelihood of actually using them

16. Seligman's attributional retraining for adults
"ABCs" related to negative events in their lives
A= Adversity
B=Belief
C= Consequence in terms of feelings
Seligman then teaches the adult to add a D to the ABC
sequence;
this D represents the client's learning to dispute the previous
counterproductive, depression-producing belief with
compelling, accurate evidence

17. "hope therapy”--in a series of 10 group sessions, learning
the goal-directed activities that are inherent in hope
theory have diminished depression and raised physical
activity levels for depressed older persons

18. Primary enhancement involves the effort to establish
optimal functioning and satisfaction
Hedonic primary enhancements tap indulgence in
pleasure and the satisfaction of appetites and needs
Eudemonic primary enhancements emphasize effective
functioning and happiness as a desirable result of the goal
pursuit process

19. research shows that happiness stems from
(1) a safe and supportive living unit with people who work
together,
(2) an environment that is fertile and productive of food,
(3) "stretching" of our bodies through exercise, and
(4) the pursuit of meaningful goals in one's
work (Diener, 2000; Kahneman, Diener, & Schwartz, 1999;
Lykken, 1999

20. Engaging in shared activities that are enjoyable enhances
psychological well-being (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988),
especially if such joint participation entails arousing and novel
activities
Another relationship that produces happiness is involvement in
religion and spiritual matters
religiosity and prayer are related to higher hope (Laird,
Snyder, Rapoff, & Green, 2004; Snyder, 2004c)
some of the satisfaction from religion probably stems from the
social contacts it provides
(Carr, 2004)

21. Gainful employment also is an important source of
happiness
To the degree to which people are satisfied with
their work, they also are happier (an overall correlation of
.40 between being employed and level of happiness;
Diener & Lucas, 1999)
The reason for this finding is that, for many people, work
provides a social network, and it also allows for the testing
of talents and skills
the job duties should match the worker's skills and talents

22. Leisure activities also can bring pleasure (Argyle, 2001).
Relaxing, resting, and eating a good meal all have the
short-term effect of making people feel better
Recreational activities such as sports, dancing, and
listening to music allow people to make enjoyable contacts
with others
Sometimes happiness comes from stimulation and a sense
of positive arousal, whereas at other times happiness
reflects a quiet, recharging process.

23. Csikszentmihalyihave studied the circumstances that lead
to a sense of total engagement.
Such activities typically are intrinsically fascinating, and
they stretch talents to satisfying levels in which persons
lose track of themselves and the passage of time.
This type of primary enhancement has been called a
flow experience, and artists, surgeons, and other
professionals report such flow in their work

24. here-and-now contemplation of one's external or internal
environment—being– or –meditation
mindfulness meditation (Langer, 2002) involves a
nonjudgmental attention that allows a sense of
peacefulness, serenity, and pleasure

25. Savoring involves thoughts or actions that are aimed at
appreciating and perhaps amplifying a positive experience
of some sort
According to Fred Bryant (2005), who is the psychologist
who coined this term and who has produced the major
theoryand research on it, savoring can take three temporal
forms:
1. Anticipation, or the enjoyment of a forthcoming positive
event
2. Being in the moment, or thinking and doing things to
intensify and perhaps prolong a positive event as it occurs
3. Reminiscing, or looking back at a positive event to
rekindle the favorable feelings or thoughts

26. Furthermore, savoring can take the form of
Sharing with others
Taking "mental photographs" to build one's memory
Congratulating oneself
Comparing with what one has felt in other circumstances
Sharpening senses through concentration
Becoming absorbed in the moment
Expressing oneself through behavior (laughing, shouting,
pumping one's fist in the air)
Realizing how fleeting and precious the experience is
Counting one's blessings

27. positive emotions help to produce a "broaden-and-build"
mentality--Barbara Fredrickson (2002)
In her research, Fredrickson (1999, 2001, 2002) has
induced positive emotions by having research
participants remember a joyful event, listen to a favorite
piece of music, watch a good movie, and receive positive
self referential feedback, to name but few examples
These positive emotional inducements, in turn, make
people happier, more perceptive, better at problem
solving, more facile in social interactions, more creative,
and so on

28. Furthermore, the positive emotions remind the person of
other related, successful episodes in his or her life, thereby
enhancing the perceived probability of doing well in the
present circumstances

29. Steve Ilardi
Therapeutic Lifestyle Change (TLC)
The basic tenet of TLC is that engaging in certain
approaches to cine's lifestyle, especially those activities
that were natural parts of the lives of our ancestors who
lived ages ago, brings about a lessening of depression and
the enhancement of happiness
The components of TLC are exercise, omega-3 fatty acid
supplements, exposure to light, decreased rumination and
worrying, social support, and
good sleep

30. Seligman recruited 577 adults who visited the website of
his book, Authentic Happiness
1. Placebo
2. Gratitude
3. 3 good things in a day
4. examine their character strengths in a new way for a
week
The writing about three good things that had happened,
along with the use of the signature strengths in a new
way, made people happier, and these
positive changes endured for as long as 6 months

31. secondary enhancement the goal is to augment already-
positive levels to reach the ultimate in performance and
satisfaction
Meaning in life
the very highest levels of pleasure are derived from
involvements that are larger than anyone person alone can
attain

32. transcending experience involves seeing another person
doing something that is so special that it is awe-inspiring
or elevating