Assignment No. 2
Q.1 critically examine the important steps involved in scientific method. What problems are
involved in its use? Elaborate.
The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and
answer questions. Does this mean all scientists follow exactly this process? No. Some areas of
science can be more easily tested than others. For example, scientists studying how stars change
as they age or how dinosaurs digested their food cannot fast-forward a star's life by a million years
or run medical exams on feeding dinosaurs to test their hypotheses. When direct experimentation
is not possible, scientists modify the scientific method. In fact, there are probably as many versions
of the scientific method as there are scientists! But even when modified, the goal remains the same:
to discover cause and effect relationships by asking questions, carefully gathering and examining
the evidence, and seeing if all the available information can be combined in to a logical answer.
Even though we show the scientific method as a series of steps, keep in mind that new information
or thinking might cause a scientist to back up and repeat steps at any point during the process. A
process like the scientific method that involves such backing up and repeating is called an iterative
process. Whether you are doing a science fair project, a classroom science activity, independent
research, or any other hands-on science inquiry understanding the steps of the scientific method
will help you focus your scientific question and work through your observations and data to answer
the question as well as possible.

Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Ask a Question
The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How,
What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?
For a science fair project some teachers require that the question be something you can measure,
preferably with a number.
For detailed help with this step, use these resources:
 Your Question
 Laboratory Notebook
2. Do Background Research
Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you
want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to
do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.
For detailed help with this step, use these resources:
 Background Research Plan
 Finding Information
 Bibliography
 Research Paper
3. Construct a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an attempt to answer your
question with an explanation that can be tested. A good hypothesis allows you to then make a
prediction:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."
State both your hypothesis and the resulting prediction you will be testing. Predictions must be
easy to measure.
For detailed help with this step, use these resources:
 Variables
 Variables for Beginners
 Hypothesis
4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment
Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is supported
or not. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure
that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.
You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't
just an accident.
For detailed help with this step, use these resources:
 Experimental Procedure
 Materials List
 Conducting an Experiment
5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if
they support your hypothesis or not.
Scientists often find that their predictions were not accurate and their hypothesis was not
supported, and in such cases they will communicate the results of their experiment and then go
back and construct a new hypothesis and prediction based on the information they learned during
their experiment. This starts much of the process of the scientific method over again. Even if
they find that their hypothesis was supported, they may want to test it again in a new way.
For detailed help with this step, use these resources:
 Data Analysis & Graphs
 Conclusions
6. Communicate Your Results
To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final
report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by
publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster or
during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are interested in your findings
regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.
For detailed help with this step, use these resources:
 Final Report
 Abstract
 Display Board
 Science Fair Judging
Q.2 Describe the various elements of an effective research proposal.
Writing a good proposal will help you manage your time so that you can complete the quarter with
three papers that meet your objectives. The specific format and content of these elements may
vary; they may not always appear as separate sections or in the order listed here.
1. Background of the study
2. Problem Statement
3. Objectives of the study
4. Significance of the study
5. Limitation of the study
6. Definition of terms
7. Literature Review
8. Methodology
Background of the study
The main idea of the background of study is to establish the area of research in which your work
belongs, and to provide a context for the research problem. It also provides information to the
research topic.
In an introduction, the writer should create:
Reader interest in the topic,
Lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study.
Statement of the problem

When you start a research, you have a question that you wish to seek answer for. The question
leads to a problem that needs to be solved by the research. Begin the research with a description
of the problem or a thesis statement.
Objectives of the study
States what your research hopes to accomplish.
Significance of the study
Why your research is important and what contributions will it give to the field. It is also advised
to state how your findings can make a difference and why is it important that the research be
carried out.
Limitation of the study
It is not possible to include ALL aspects of a particular problem. State what is not
included. Specify the boundaries of you research. A too wide area of investigation is impractical
and will lead to problems.
Definition of terms
Terms or concepts that you use should be defined and explained unless they are familiar or
obvious. You should refer to authoritative sources for definitions.
Literature Review
This section need not be lengthy but it should reflect your understanding of relevant bodies of
literature. List all pertinent papers or reports that you have consulted in preparing the proposal;
include conversations with faculty, peers or other experts. A well-written review provides a sense
of critical issues which form the background for your own work this quarter.
By doing this it shows that you are aware of the literature study that is required in your research
area. Your review a substantial amount of reading materials before writing your proposal. It shows
that you have sufficient theoretical knowledge in your chosen research area.
By reviewing related literature at this stage, it will make you:
Aware of other similar work which has been done.
Expose methodologies that have been adopted and which you may use or adapt.
Provide sources of information that you do not have yet.
By reviewing related literature at this stage, it will inform you:
If a chosen area has already been researched extensively.
Approaches that you do not know of before
Methodology
This section is the heart of the proposal because it provides insight into your perspective as well
as details on how you plan to carry out the project. How will you accomplish your objective(s)?
What theories or concepts will guide the study? How do they or might they suggest the specific
hypotheses or research questions? Where might you run into obstacles? Explain the specifics of
what you want present in your project (statistical data, comparisons of historical and recent data,
the evolution of a paradigm, etc.). One way to do this is by developing a rough outline of the
major topics and sub-topics that you will investigate. Your timeline and a very rough scope (past
– current – future) has been pre-determined. If outside organizations involved, explain how you
are going to get hold of the data. Indicate why the methodology is used. If existing methodology
is not to be used, explain why you need to use an adapted methodology.
A final note about good proposals
Quality writing is critical. The proposal should be clear, concise, and free of jargon. There should
be no spelling or grammatical errors, and the proposal should be easy to read.

Start early and share ideas with peers! Incorporate feedback; gain ideas from reading other student
work.
Q.3 Computer search is one of the best sources of data collection. Discuss with reference to
distant learners.
Data collection methods in educational research are used to gather information that is then
analyzed and interpreted. As such, data collection is a very important step in conducting research
and can influence results significantly. Once the research question and sources of data are
identified, appropriate methods of data collection are determined. Data collection includes a broad
range of more specific techniques. Historically, much of the data collection performed in
educational research depended on methods developed for studies in the field of psychology, a
discipline which took what is termed a “quantitative” approach. This involves using instruments,
scales, Tests, and structured observation and interviewing. By the mid- to late twentieth centuries,
other disciplines such as anthropology and sociology began to influence educational researchers.
Forms of data collection broadened to include what is now called “qualitative” methods, with an
emphasis on narratives, participant perspectives, and less structured observation and interviewing.
As contemporary educational researchers also draw from fields such as business, political science,
and medicine, data collection in education has become a multidisciplinary phenomenon. Because
data collection is such a broad topic, General Overviews that attempt to cover all or most
techniques tend to offer introductory treatments. Few texts, however, provide comprehensive
coverage of every data collection technique. Instead, some cover techniques appropriate for either
quantitative or qualitative research approaches. Even more focus on one or two data collection
methods within those two research contexts. Consequently, after presenting general overviews,
this entry is categorized by data collection appropriate for quantitative and Qualitative Data
Collection. These sections, in turn, are subdivided into the major types of quantitative and
qualitative data collection techniques. While there are some data collection techniques specific to
mixed method research design, which implies a combination of qualitative and quantitative
research methodologies, these specific procedures are not emphasized in the present article—
readers are referred to the Oxford Bibliography article Mixed Methods Research by Nancy Leech
for a comprehensive treatment of mixed method data collection techniques. To locate sources for
this article, extensive searches were performed using general-use Internet search engines and
educational, psychological, and social science research databases. These searches included
keywords around data collection and research methods, as well as specific data collection
techniques such as surveys, Tests, Focus Groups, and observation. Frequently cited texts and
articles, most recent editions at the time, and sources specific to educational research were given
priority. Once these sources were identified, their suggested readings and reference lists were
mined for other potential sources. Works or scholars found in multiple reference lists were
investigated. When applicable, book reviews in peer-reviewed journals were located and taken
into account when curating sources. Sources that demonstrated a high level of impact or offered
unique coverage of the topic were included. General educational research overviews typically
include several chapters on data collection, organized into qualitative and quantitative approaches.
As a rule they are updated frequently so that they offer timely discussions of methodological

trends. Most of them are introductory in nature, written for student researchers. Because of the
influence of psychology and other social sciences on the development of data collection in
educational research, representative works of psychology (Trochim 2006) and of general social
sciences (Robson 2011) are included. Available online, Trochim 2006 is a reader-friendly
introduction that provides succinct explanations of most quantitative and qualitative
approaches. Olsen 2012 is helpful in showing how data collection techniques used in other
disciplines have implications for educational studies. Specific to education, Gall, et al. 2007 is a
frequently cited text that contains most educational data collection techniques, although it tends to
emphasize more traditional quantitative approaches. Johnson and Christensen 2014 offers a more
balanced treatment meant for novice researchers and educational research consumers. Cohen, et
al. 2011 also provides a balanced approach, but from a British perspective. Fielding, et al.
2008 offer practical advice on recently developed forms of online data collection, with special
attention given to the ethical ramifications of Internet-based data collection. Finally, Arthur, et al.
2012 is unique in this section in that it is an edited work offering short overviews of data collection
techniques authored by contemporary leading experts.
Q.4 Write down the characteristics of different tools of research.
Primary Data Collection
Primary data collection by definition is the gathering of raw data collected at the source. It is a
process of collecting the original data collected by a researcher for a specific research purpose. It
could be further analyzed into two segments; qualitative research and quantitative data collection
methods.
Qualitative Research Method
The qualitative research methods of data collection does not involve the collection of data that
involves numbers or a need to be deduced through a mathematical calculation, rather it is based
on the non-quantifiable elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher. An example of such
a method is an open-ended questionnaire.

Quantitative Method
Quantitative methods are presented in numbers and require a mathematical calculation to deduce.
An example would be the use of a questionnaire with close-ended questions to arrive at figures to
be calculated mathematically. Also, methods of correlation and regression, mean, mode and
median.

Secondary Data Collection
Secondary data collection, on the other hand, is referred to as the gathering of second-hand data
collected by an individual who is not the original user. It is the process of collecting data that is
already existing, be it already published books, journals and/or online portals. In terms of ease, it
is much less expensive and easier to collect.
Your choice between Primary data collection and secondary data collection depend on the nature,
scope and area of your research as well as its aims and objectives.
IMPORTANCE OF DATA COLLECTION
There are a bunch of underlying reasons for collecting data, especially for a researcher. Walking
you through them, here are a few reasons;
 Integrity of The Research
A key reason for collecting data, be it through quantitative or qualitative methods is to ensure that
the integrity of the research question is indeed maintained.
 Reduce the likelihood of errors
The correct use of appropriate data collection of methods reduces the likelihood of errors consistent
with the results.
 Decision Making
To minimize the risk of errors in decision making, it is important that accurate data is collected so
that the researcher doesn't make uninformed decisions.
 Save Cost and Time

Data collection saves the researcher time and funds that would otherwise be misspent without a
deeper understanding of the topic or subject matter.
 To support a need for a new idea, change and/or innovation
To prove the need for a change in the norm or the introduction of new information that will be
widely accepted, it is important to collect data as evidence to support these claims.
Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper
questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews,
Observation sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.
It is important to decide the tools for data collection because research is carried out in different
ways and for different purposes. The objective behind data collection is to capture quality evidence
that allows analysis to lead to the formulation of convincing and credible answers to the questions
that have been posed.
The Form plus’ online data collection tool is perfect for gathering primary data, i.e. raw data
collected from the source. You can easily get data with at least three data collection methods with
our online and offline data gathering tool. I.e. Online Questionnaires, Focus Groups and
Reporting.
In our previous articles, we’ve explained why quantitative research methods are more effective
than qualitative methods. However, with Form plus data collection tool, you can gather all types
of primary data for academic, opinion or product research.
Q.5 Write a detailed note on the main divisions of which points to consider while writing a
research report. Elaborate
The six components of a research report are as follows:
An abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and references.
The Abstract
The abstract is an overview of the research study and is typically two to four paragraphs in
length. Think of it as an executive summary that distills the key elements of the remaining sections
into a few sentences.
Introduction
The introduction provides the key question that the researcher is attempting to answer and a review
of any literature that is relevant. In addition, the researcher will provide a rationale for why the
research is important and will present a hypothesis that attempts to answer the key
question. Lastly, the introduction should summarize the state of the key question following the
completion of the research. For example, are there any important issues or questions still open?
Methodology
The methodology section of the research report is arguably the most important for two
reasons. First it allows readers to evaluate the quality of the research and second, it provides the
details by which another researcher may replicate and validate the findings.
(1) Typically the information in the methodology section is arranged in chronological order with
the most important information at the top of each section.
(2) Ideally the description of the methodology doesn’t force you to refer to other documents;
however if the author is relying on existing methods, they will be referenced.

Results
In longer research papers, the results section contains the data and perhaps a short
introduction. Typically the interpretation of the data and the analysis is reserved for the discussion
section.
Discussion
The discussion section is where the results of the study are interpreted and evaluated against
the existing body or research literature. In addition, should there be any anomalies found in the
results, this is where the authors will point them out. Lastly the discussion section will attempt to
connect the results to the bigger picture and show how the results might be applied.
References
This section provides a list of each author and paper cited in the research report. Any fact, idea,
or direct quotation used in the report should be cited and referenced.
Types of Research Studies
Research can be classified into two categories:
Basic research, which is done in a lab or a clinical setting and applied research, which is done
with real subjects in real-world situations. And from these categories of research, we have the
following general types of studies:
Animal Study: An animal or in vivo study is a study in which animals are used as subjects. A
common use of an animal study is with a clinical trial (see below) and as a precursor to evaluating
a medical intervention on humans. However, it is critical to recognize that results from animal
studies should not be extrapolated to draw conclusions on what WILL happen in humans.
Case Study: A case study provides significant and detailed information about a single participant
or a small group of participants. “Case studies are often referred to interchangeably with
ethnography, field study, and participant observation.” Unlike other studies which rely heavily on
statistical analysis, the case study is often undertaken to identify areas for additional research and
exploration.
Clinical Trial Study: A clinical trial study is often used in the areas of health and medical
treatments that will presumably yield a positive effect. Typically a small group of people or
animals are selected based upon the presence of a specific medical condition. This group is used
to evaluate the effectiveness of a new medication or treatment, differing dosages, new applications
of existing treatments. Due to the risk involved with many new medical treatments, the initial
subjects in a clinical trial may be animals and not humans. After positive outcomes are obtained,
research then can proceed to a human study where the treatment is compared against results from
the existing standard of care.
Correlational Study: Correlational studies evaluate the relationship between variables and
determine if there is a positive correlation, a negative correlation, or no correlation. Please note,
a positive correlation does not mean one thing causes another. Correlational studies are typically
used in naturalistic observations, surveys, and with archival research.

Cross-sectional Survey: Also known as the synchronic study, a cross-sectional survey collects
data at a single point in time but the questions asked of a participant may be about current and past
experiences. They are often done to evaluate some aspect of public health policy.
Epidemiological Study: Epidemiological studies evaluate the factors and associations linked to
diseases. Types of epidemiological studies include case series studies, case control studies, cohort
studies, longitudinal studies, and outbreak investigations.
Epidemiological studies are often beneficial in identifying areas for a more control research
evaluation; however all to often, readers of epidemiological research miscategorize links and
associations as causes. In addition, a common problem with epidemiological studies is that they
rely on memory recall which can be quite unreliable.
Experimental Study: In an experimental study, specific treatments are applied to a sample or
group and the results are observed.
Literature Review: A literature review is an exhaustive search of all of the relevant literature
related to a specific research topic.
Longitudinal Study: A specific type of epidemiological study, the longitudinal study follows
subjects over a long period of time, asking a specific research question with repeated samples of
data gathered across the duration of the study. These studies are often used as the basis for specific
experimental studies. For example, the Framingham Heart Study has evaluated people from the
town of Framingham, Massachusetts since 1948 looking for patterns in heart disease.
Meta-analysis: A meta-analysis is a statistical process in which the results of multiple studies
evaluating a similar research objective are collected and pooled together. They are often used to
determine the effectiveness of healthcare interventions and experiments.