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Ecological Relationships

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Relationships Between Organisms Understanding The Terms Ruth Abatzoglou

Relationships are Complex Predator? Protector? Prey? Partners?

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Symbiotic Relationships ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Mutualism ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

Parasitism ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]

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Ecological interactions form the backbone of an ecosystem. It helps in maintaining the dynamic equilibrium of an ecosystem. All organisms are linked to at least one other species in a variety of critical ways, for example, as predators or prey, or as pollinators or seed dispersers with the result that each species is embedded in a complex network of interactions. Consequently, the extinction of one species can lead to a cascade of secondary extinctions in ecological networks. Moreover, interactions between species can lead to ‘community closure’ after the loss of a species, with the result that a locally extinct species cannot re-establish itself if it is reintroduced. Many ecological interactions involve flagship species and keystone species as in the case of Macaca silenus & Cullenia exarillata. Then some interactions like mycorrhiza help in nitrogen fixation. Strategies like predation reduce the loss of vegetation through grazing. Interaction can be either intraspecific or interspecific. Interactions between individuals of the same species and those between individuals of different species are called intra- & interspecific interactions. respectively. The lichen serves as an example of interspecific interaction and dog fighting. for a common prey for intraspecific interaction.

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Mutualism describes an interaction that benefits both species. A well-known example exists in the mutualistic relationship between alga and fungus that form lichens. The photosynthesizing alga supplies the fungus with nutrients and gains protection in return. The relationship also allows lichen to colonize habitats inhospitable to either organism alone. In rare cases, mutualistic partners cheat. Some bees and birds receive food rewards without providing pollination services in exchange. These "nectar robbers" chew a hole at the base of the flower and miss contact with the reproductive structures. Both species involved in the interaction are benefited. These interactions take place in three patterns: Facultative mutualism – Species survive on their own under favorable conditions Obligate mutualism – One species is dependent for survival on the other Diffusive mutualism – One entity can live with multiple partners These relationships have three purposes: Defensive mutualism Trophic mutualism Dispersive mutualism

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CHAPTER 15 Smith, T. M., & Smith, R. L. (2015). Elements of Ecology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. 15.1 Parasites Draw Resources from Host Organisms Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species. One species—the parasite—benefits from a prolonged, close association with the other species—the host—which is harmed. Parasites increase their fitness by exploiting host organisms for food, habitat, and dispersal. Although they draw nourishment from the tissues of the host organism, parasites typically do not kill their hosts as predators do. However, the host may die from secondary infection or suffer reduced fitness as a result of stunted growth, emaciation, modification of behavior, or sterility. In general, parasites are much smaller than their hosts, are highly specialized for their mode of life, and reproduce more quickly and in greater numbers than their hosts. The definition of parasitism just presented may appear unambiguous. But as with predation the term parasitism is often used in a more general sense to describe a much broader range of interactions (see Section 14.1). Interactions between species frequently satisfy some, but not all, parts of this definition because in many cases it is hard to demonstrate that the host is harmed. In other cases, there may be no apparent specialization by the parasite or the interaction between the organisms may be short-lived. For example, because of the episodic nature of their feeding habits, mosquitoes and hematophagic (blood-feeding) bats are typically not considered parasitic. Parasitism can also be used to describe a form of feeding in which one animal appropriates food gathered by another (the host), which is a behavior termed cleptoparasitism (literally meaning “parasitism by theft”). An example is the brood parasitism practiced by many species of cuckoo (Cuculidae). Many cuckoos use other bird species as “babysitters”; they deposit their eggs in the nest of the host species, which raise the cuckoo young as one of their own (see Chapter 12 opening photograph). In the following discussion, we use the narrower definition of parasite as given in the previous paragraph, which includes a wide range of organisms—viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, and an array of invertebrates, among them arthropods. A heavy load of parasites is termed an infection, and the outcome of an infection is a disease. Parasites are distinguished by size. Ecologically, parasites may be classified as microparasites and macroparasites. Microparasites include viruses, bacteria, and protists. They are characterized by small size and a short generation time. They develop and multiply rapidly within the host and are the class of parasites that we typically associate with the term disease. The infection generally lasts a short time relative to the host’s expected life span. Transmission from host to host is most often direct, although other species may serve as carriers. Macroparasite ...

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Abatzoglou U5a2

1. Relationships Between Organisms Understanding The Terms Ruth Abatzoglou

3. Relationships are Complex Predator? Protector? Prey? Partners?

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Abatzoglou U5a2

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