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2. PRESENTING BY:DR.RAHUL TIWARI
M.D.S. 1ST YEAR
DEPARTMENT OF ORTHODONTIC
&
DENTOFACIAL ORTHPAEDIC

3. INTRODUCTION
The branch of science and
technology concerned with the
properties of metals , their
production and purification is
known as Metallurgy.

4. Matter is anything that occupies space and has
rest mass.
Matter is commonly said to exist In three states:
•SOLID
•LIQUID
•GAS
Matter is made up of atoms and molecules.
Atoms are made of sub- atomic particles, namely,
electrons, protons, and neutrons.

6.  An element that is a good conductor of
both electricity and heat.
 Metals are usually malleable , ductile and shiny, that is they
reflect light.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
 Metals have luster.
 metals can be drawn into wire.(Ductile)
 Metals can be hammered into sheets(Malleable)
 Metals have a high melting point.
 They are also very dense.
 Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat
 A chemical property of metal is its reaction with water and
oxygen. This results in corrosion and rust.

7. Electrostatic interactions between the ions and the
electron cloud, are called metallic bonds.

8. Metals are sometimes described as an arrangement of positive
ions surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons.
Covalent Bonding:
A covalent bond is chemical bonding that is characterized
by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms.
 The attraction-to-repulsion stability that forms between
atoms when they share electrons is known as covalent
bonding..
 Covalent bonding can be seen in organic compounds like
dental resins.

9. Ionic Bonding:
Type of chemical bond that has to have a metal and
nonmetal ion through electrostatic attention. Explained
as an attraction between two oppositely charged ions.
 The metal donates one or more electrons, forming a
positively charged ion with a stable electron configuration.
 Electrons then enter the non metal, causing it to form a
negatively charged ion, also known as an anion which has a
stable electron configuration

11. Stress:
 It is the force per unit area acting on millions of atoms
in a material.
 Stress is always accompanied by strain.
 There are three types of stress depending on the three types
of forces experienced:-
1.Tensile Stress
2.Compressiv Stress
3. Shear Stress

12. Strain:
 Strain is defined as the change in length per unit length, is
the relative deformation of an object subjected to stress.
Stress–Strain Curve
 The relationship between the stress and strain that a
particular material displays is known as that material's
Stress-Strain curve.

13.  Annealing (metallurgy), a heat treatment that alters the
microstructure of a material causing changes in
properties such as strength, hardness, and ductility
 heat (metal or glass) and allow it to cool slowly, in order
to remove internal stresses and toughen it.
 heat treatment that alters the physical and sometimes
chemical properties of a material to increase
its ductility and reduce its hardness ,making it more
workable.

15.  In materials science, quenching is the rapid cooling of a
work piece to obtain certain material properties.
 It prevents low-temperature processes, such
as phase transformations, from occurring by only
providing a narrow window of time
 It can reduce crystallinity and thereby increase
toughness of both alloys and plastics.

17.  Ability of a material (such as a metal) to undergo
permanent deformation through elongation or bending
at room temperature without fracturing.
 It is the maximum plastic deformation a material can
withstand.
 Gold is the most ductile metal, followed by silver.


18.  Malleability refers to metals(and other hard materials)
ability to be stretched, shaped, or molded through
applied pressure.
 This is the reason that metals such as gold, silver, and
platinum, are used to make jewelry and electronic
circuits.
 Gold is the most malleable metal followed by silver.

19.  A metal made by combining two or more metallic
elements, especially to give greater strength or resistance to
corrosion.
 Alloys are used in a wide variety of many applications. In
some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall
cost of the material while preserving important properties. In
other cases, the combination of metals imparts synergistic
properties to the constituent metal elements such as
corrosion resistance or mechanical strength.

21.  Alloy is a combination of different elements, at least one
of which is a metal.
 There can be binary, ternary or quaternary alloy systems
based on the number of chemical elements.
 Alloys are often made to alter the mechanical properties of
the base metal, to induce hardness, toughness, ductility, or
other desired properties.

22. CLASSIFICATION OF CAST ALLOYS:
 Major elements- gold based, palladium based, etc.
 Uses- post and core alloys, crown and bridge alloys, etc.
 Nobility- high noble, base metal alloys.
 Principal three elements- Ti-Al-V, Fe-Ni-Cr, Au-Pd-Ag, etc.
 Dominanat phase system- eutectic, peritectic, etc.

23.  When materials change temperature they can change state,
this is called a phase change.
 Whenever there is a phase change (change of state) in a
material, the atoms or molecules involved are rearranged.
Solid Solutions:
 A solid phase containing two or more elements, at least one
of which is a metal, that are intimately combined at the
atomic level, producing a homogeneous crystalline structure
at room temperature.

25.  Miscibility(MIXABLE) is the property of liquids to mix in
all proportions, forming a homogeneous solution.
 BUT there are a few metals that when they meet behave like
oil and water.
 A combination of density differences and surface tension
ensure that the two materials separate in to two distinct
layers.
 Diesel and water, aluminum and lead are few examples.

27.  Wrought alloys are cold worked alloys that have been
plastically deformed to alter the shape of the structure and
some mechanical properties (strength, hardness, ductility).
 The work done on the alloy is at a temperature far below the
solidus, and is therefore called as cold work.
 The resulting alloy is harder and has a good strength
 Resistance to deformity
 It can be modified by heating and annealing

28.  Wrought stainless steel alloys
 Wrought Co-Cr-Ni alloys (elgiloy or super alloy)
 Wrought Ni-Ti alloys
 Wrought beta-titanium wires

29.  When carbon in small quantities is added to iron, ‘Steel’ is
obtained.
 The influence of carbon on mechanical properties of iron is
much larger than other alloying elements.
 The atomic diameter of carbon is less than the interstices
between iron atoms and the carbon goes into solid solution
of iron.
 Adding more and more carbon to iron (upto solubility of
iron) provides increased mechanical strength.
However addition of carbon has two deleterious effects on
iron:-
 Decreases ductility
 Causes problems with the welding procedures.

30.  Steel is an alloy made by combining iron and other elements,
the most common of these being carbon.
 When carbon is used, its content in the steel is between 0.2%
and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade.
 Other alloying elements used are
manganese, chromium, vanadium and tungsten.
 Steel is harder and stronger than iron.

31.  Crucible steel
 Carbon steel (≤2.1% carbon; low alloy)
 Spring steel (low or no alloy)
 Alloy steel (contains non-carbon elements)
 Maraging steel (contains nickel)
 Stainless steel (contains ≥10.5% chromium)
 Weathering steel
 Tool steel (alloy steel for tools)

32.  In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or
inox from French inoxydable, is a steel alloy with a
minimum of 10.5% chromium content by mass.
 Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust or stain with
water as ordinary steel does
 Stainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of
chromium present. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily
when exposed to air and moisture..
 Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to form
a passive film of chromium oxide, which prevents further
surface corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel
surface and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's
internal structure

33.  Austenitic steels:- most extensively used in dentistry.
most commonly used variety is 18-8 stainless steel.
chromium content is between 13%-28%.
 Martensitic steels:- lower chromium content (12%-18%)
 Ferritic steels:- chromium content is 15%-25%.
 One of the differences between the two phases is that
martensite has a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) crystal
structure, whereas austenite has a face-centered cubic (FCC)
structure.

36. Corrosion resistance
 Best CR: Austenitic
 Middle CR : Ferritic
 Least CR: Martensitic, but strongest

40. Why are molybdenum added to stainless steels?
Molybdenum adds corrosion resistance and high
temperature strength.
 Molybdenum containing grades of stainless steels are
generally more corrosion resistant than molybdenum-free
grades.
 Austenitic steel has more molybdenum content than ferritic
and martensite.
 Because of their good mechanical properties and the ease of
fabrication, austenitic stainless steels are much more widely
used than ferritic stainless steels.

41.  About 75% of all stainless steel used worldwide is austenitic
and about 25% is ferritic.
 The other families, martensitic, duplex and precipitation
hardenable stainless steels each represent less than 1% of the
total market.
 Adding 8% nickel to a ferritic chromium stainless steel
makes an austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steel. If less
nickel is added to a chromium steel, about four or five
percent, a duplex structure, a mixture of austenite and
ferrite, is created as in duplex stainless steel

42.  Sensitization refers to the precipitation of carbon atoms at
grain boundaries in a stainless steel or alloy, causing the alloy
to be susceptible to intergranular corrosion or intergranular
stress corrosion cracking.
 Austenitic SS loose their corrosion resistance if heated to
400o C to 900o C.
 Small carbon atoms rapidly diffuse into the grain boundaries
to combine with iron and chromium atoms and to form
(CrFe)4C.
 (CrFe)4C is highly susceptible for corrosion.

43. Heat(450’)

44.  Annealing should be use rather than direct heating
 Another control technique for preventing intergranular
corrosion involves incorporating strong carbide formers or
stabilizing elements such as niobium or titanium in the
stainless steels. Such elements have a greater affinity
for carbon than chromium does. Carbide formation with
these elements reduces the carbon available in the alloy for
formation of chromium carbides.
 A third option is reduce carbon content below 0.03 percent
so that insufficient carbon is available for carbide formation.

45. Gold alloys
 Gold has been used in jewelry and early versions of dentistry
for several thousand years – primarily as gold foil.
 The first used orthodontic wire was a gold wire.
 Pure gold is also very soft. To produce an enduring gold
restoration for dentistry, requires the production of strong
gold alloys and establishment of suitable fabrication
procedures.
 The gold alloy wire compositions were generally similar to
those of type IV gold casting alloys.
.

46.  The gold alloy wires had elastic force delivery much less than
that for stainless steel wires.
 Substantial hardening and strengthening of these alloys was
done by appropriate heat treatment.
 Gold is alloyed with copper to increase it’s strength and to
decrease it’s ductility and malleability.
 By the 1950s ss alloys were used for most orthodontic
purpose

47. USE OF GOLD ALLOY IN EARLY DAYS

49. Why are only austenitic stainless steels used in orthodontics?:-
 Greater ductility and ability to undergo more cold work
 Substantial strengthen during cold work.
 Greater ease of welding.
 Ability to overcome sensitization.
 Comparative ease of forming.
 SS orthodontic wires can become fully annealed in a few
seconds at temperatures from 7000 C- 800O C.
 Unfortunately, this temperature lies in the soldering and
welding temperature range of ss wires.
 Result is a new, recrystallized microstructure within a few
seconds after the start of welding which decreases the
working range of the wire.

50.  This disadvantage is minimized by using low fusing solders,
and by confining the time for welding procedures to a
minimum.
 Any softening that occurs under such circumstances can be
reversed
 Later by cold working procedures like polishing and
finishing.

51.  An increase in the elastic properties of ss wires can be
obtained by heat treatment to 4000 C- 5000 C after it has
been cold worked.
 The wire is pushed only to the recovery stage and not up to
the recrystallization stage.
 This removes the residual stresses from the wire and
stabilizes the shape of the appliance.
 Clinically it helps to decrease the chances of fracture of the
appliance.

52.  Commercially marketed as Elgiloy by Elgiloy corp., USA.
 The passivating effect is due to the presence of a layer of
chromium oxide, same as in the case of ss wires.
 Elgiloy Blue is very popular among orthodontists because the
wire can be manipulated into desired shapes and then heat
treated to achieve considerable increases in strength and
resilience.
 Elgiloy (Co-Cr-Ni Alloy) is a "super-alloy" consisting of 39-
41% Cobalt, 19-21% Chromium, 14-16% Nickel, 11.3-
20.5% Iron, 6-8% Molybdenum, and 1.5-2.5% Manganese.

53.  Alloy of choice for the fabrication of fixed palatal quad
helix appliance for the treatment of maxillary constriction.

54.  Nitinol is an acronym for Nickel Titanium Naval Ordnance
Laboratories
 It was developed by William Buehler and Frederick Wang
 A shape memory alloy is an alloy that “remembers” its
shape.
 Nickel-Titanium alloys were first developed in 1962 and 1963.
 The 1st Ni-Ti alloy was marketed by Unitek Corp., USA in
1972.
 The use of Ni-Ti in orthodontics was advocated by
Andreason in early 1970s.
 These alloys possess two unique properties , viz. super
elasticity and shape memory.

55.  Require special bending techniques and cannot be bent over
a sharp bend or complete loop.
 Alloy is brittle, so cannot be soldered or welded.
 Ni- ti alloys in dentistry are based on equiatomic
intermetallic compound Niti, which contains 55wt% nickel
and 45 wt% titanium because of the differing atomic weights
of the two metals.
 Ni – Ti intermetallic compound can exist in different crystal
structures, namely bcc austenitic ni- ti and distorted
monoclinic, triclinic or hexagonal martensitic ni- ti.
 Austenitic ni- ti is a high temp., low stress form, and
martensitic ni- ti is a low temp., high stress form.
 These wires offered modulus of elasticity approx 20% that of
the ss wires, and a wide elastic working range.

56. Disadvantages of Ni- Ti Wires:-
 They are difficult to form into clinical shapes
 Have to be joined by mechanical crimping as they can’t be
soldered or welded.
 Rough surface of the wire can lead to increased arch wire-
bracket friction and a long treatment time.

57.  Beta titanium wires in orthodontics is marketed by the name
TMA, i.e. Titanium Molybdenum Alloy by Ormco Corp.,
USA.
 Beta titanium was considered for orthodontic use by
Burstone and Goldberg who saw it’s potential of delivering
lower biomechanical forces as compared to elgiloy and ss
wires.
 Also the spring back values are much higher, which increases
it’s working range for tooth movement.
 The second advantage of TMA is it’s excellent formability,
which is due to the their bcc structure.
 The third clinical advantage of TMA is that it is the only
orthodontic wire alloy possessing true weldability.

58.  TMA wires are the most expensive of orthodontic wires.
 Beta titanium wires lack Ni completely.
 Corrosion resistance is due to formation of TiO2 on the
surface. The resistance is not due to the passivating effect of
chromium as in the case of stainless steel.
Disadvantages of TMA:
 Surface roughness of TMA wires is much more than for
stainless steel and Elgiloy wires.
 The roughness originates from the adherence of the titanium
in both wire alloys to the dies or rollers used in wire
processing.
 Manufacturers have developed the nitrogen ion
implantation technique for decreasing the surface
roughness of ni- ti and beta titanium alloys.

60.  These nickel-free Beta Titanium alloy arch wires were
developed by Dr. Burstone.
 Excellent alternative over TMA arch wires, the superb
formability for placement of loops and bends reducing
important chair side time.
 The flexibility makes it the perfect arch wire for use during
the mid-to-late stages of treatment.

61. Due to ease of bending the CNA Nickel-Free Arch wire, this
wire is ideal for use when the following is required.
 Custom tipping
 Aligning
 Space closure
 Rotation
 Tooth movement
Doctors are moving to the CNA Nickel-Free over TMA because:
 CNA Arch wire does not break as easily as TMA
 The CNA Arch wire has a smooth, high-polish finish which
provides less friction
 It is easier to form loops and bends with the CNA Arch wire.
 Once intended shape is formed, the arch wire maintains its
integrity

62. {References:1. Titanium-niobium, a new finishing wire alloy. By Michel dalstra, Gabriella denes, birte melsen J.Clin orthod res. 2000 feb;3(1):6-
142. A comparative evaluation of metallurgical properties of stainless steel and tma wires with Tiolium and titanium niobium archwires by r
devaki vijayalakshmi,ks nagachandran, pradeep kummi, p jayakumar (indian j dent res,20(4),2009)
 It was introduced in early 1995 by DR ROHIT
SACHDEVA
 Titanium Niobium Wire or Ti-nb wire have a larger
plastic range, similar activation and deactivation curves
and relatively low spring back.
 Its stiffness is 20% lower than TMA and 70% lower than
stainless steel.
 Ti- nb is soft and easy to form, yet it has the same
working range of stainless steel
 Manufactured by OrmcoPROPERTIES:

63. TITANIUM NIOBIUM WIRE Clinical applications
 The low spring back and high formability of the titanium-
niobium archwire allows creation of finishing bends Hence,
this wire can be used as an finishing archwire.

64.  Brightly polished and aesthetically pleasing , Smoother
for reduced friction, More resistant to breakage.
 Timolium titanium archwire is manufactured by TP
ORTHODONTIST
 Timolium arch wires combines The flexibility, continuous
force and spring back of nickel titanium with the high
stiffness and bendability of stainless steel wire.

65. ADVANTAGE:
 Loops and bends can be made without breakage
 Can be welded easily
 Easier to bend and shape,
 Can use in Nickel sensitive patients,
 During initial treatment : it is excellent for space closure,
tooth alignment, leveling and bite opening.
 Its super cable property Improved treatment efficiency.
 Simplified mechanotherapy
 Flexibility and ease of engagement regardless of crowding

66. ( References:1. Supercable and the SPEED system by Berger J, Byloff FK, Waram T j clin orthod 1998 Apr;32(4):246-532. Alignment
efficiency of superelastic coaxial nickel-titanium vs superelastic single-stranded nickel-titanium in relieving mandibular anterior crowding A
randomized controlled prospective study by Biju Sebastiana (Angle Orthod.)
 In 1993, Hanson combined the mechanical advantages of
multistranded cables with the material properties of
superelastic wires to create a superelastic nickel titanium
coaxial wire. This wire, called super cable.
 It comprises seven individual strands that are Woven
together in a long, gentle spiral to maximize flexibility and
minimize force delivery.

67. SUPER CABLE PROPERTIES:
 Improved treatment efficiency
 Simplified mechanotherapy
 Elimination of archwire bending
 Flexibility and ease of engagement regardless of crowding
 Fewer patient visits, due to longer archwire activation.
 Minimal patient discomfort after initial archwire placement.
 A light, continuous level of force, preventing any adverse
response of the supporting periodontium.
 No evidence of anchorage loss.

68. SUPER CABLE DISADVANTAGES:
 Tendency of wire ends to fray if not cut with sharp
instruments
 Tendency of arch wires to break and unravel in extraction
spaces
 Inability to accommodate bends, steps, or helices.
 Tendency of wire ends to migrate distally and occasionally
irritate soft tissues as severely crowded or displaced teeth
begin to align.

70. References:1. Combination anchorage technique: an update of current mechanics by Thompson WJ. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 1988
May;93(5):363-79.2. Dual-Flex Archwires by JAMES L. CANNON, DDS, MS JCO VOLUME 18 : NUMBER 09 : PAGES (648-649) 1984
 Small gauge, flexible archwires that produce light forces over
a large working range have been useful during the initial
alignment of crowded, malposed teeth, and have virtually
eliminated the need for loops.
 However, wire spans at extraction sites are longer and more
flexible; and space closure with inter-or intramaxillary
traction and overbite correction requires stability in the
buccal segments.
 It is used at the beginning of treatment. The flexible front
part easily aligns the anterior teeth and the rigid posterior
part maintains the anchorage and molar control by means of
the “V” bend, mesial to the molars

71. There are three specific combined wires are in use in
orthodontics:
 1. Dual Flex-l
Anterior section made of 0.016-inch round Titanal
and a posterior section made of 0.016-inch round steel.
 2. Dual Flex-2
Flexible anterior segment composed of an 0.016 ´
0.022-inch rectangular Titanal and a rigid posterior segment
of round 0.018-inch steel.
 3. Dual Flex-3
A flexible anterior part of an 0.017 0.025-inch Titanal
rectangular wire and a posterior part of 0.018 square steel
wire.

72.  The Dual Flex-2 and 3 wires establish anterior anchorage and
control molar rotation during the closure of posterior spaces.

73.  References:1. Effect of coating on properties of esthetic orthodontic nickel-titanium wires by Masahiro Iijimaa; Takeshi Mugurumab; William
A. Brantleyc; Han-CheolChoed; Angle Orthodontist, Vol 82, No 2, 2012
 The BioForce high esthetic archwire is a NiTi, thermally activated
shape memory archwire.
 BioForce provides the right force to each tooth, applying
low, gentle forces for the anterior (100g) and increasingly
stronger forces across the posteriors (300g).
 BioForce high esthetic arch wires are available in square section of
.018 x .018 and .020 x .020 in medium and large arch sizes.

75. References:1. Talass M E .Optiflex archwire treatment of a skeletal Class HI open bite. J Clin Orthod 1992; 26: 245-52.2. Effect of coating on
properties of esthetic orthodontic nickel-titanium wires by Masahiro Iijimaa; Takeshi Mugurumab; William A. Brantleyc; Han-CheolChoed;
Angle Orthodontist, Vol 82, No 2, 2012
 It was designed by DR. TALASS in 1992
 Optiflex is a non metallic orthodontic arch wire.
 It has got unique mechanical properties with a highly
aesthetic appearance made of clear optical fiber
 It comprises of 3 layers.
 A) A silicon dioxide core that provides the force for
moving tooth.
 B) A silicon resin middle layer that protects the core form
moisture and adds strength.
 C) A strain resistant nylon outer layer that prevents
damage to the wire and further increases strength.

76.  It the most aesthetic orthodontic archwire.
 It is completely stain resistant, and will not stain or loose its
clear look even after several weeks in mouth.
 Its effective in moving teeth using light continuous force
 Precaution’s while using optiflex archwires
 1) Optiflex archwires should be tied into brackets with
elastomeric ligatures. Metal ligatures should never be used
since they will fracture the glass core
 2) Sharp bends similar to those placed in a metal wire
should never be attempted with optiflex, as these bends
will immediately fracture the glass core.
 3) Using instruments with sharp edges, like the scaler etc
should be avoided instead a gentle finger pressure is used to
insert the archwire into the slot.
 4) To cut the end of the archwire distal to the molar, it is
recommended to the use the mini distal end cutter which
is designed to cut all 3 layer’s of optiflex.

78.  References:1. Zufall S W, Kusy R P. Sliding mechanics of coated compo-site wires and the development of an engineering model for binding. Angle Orthod 2000; 70: 34- 47.2.
Burstone C.J., Kuhlberg A.J. Fiber-reinforced composites in orthodontics. JCO 2000; 36: 271-9.3. Fiber Reinforced Composite Arch-Wires in Orthodontics:Function Meets
 Excellent aesthetics because of their translucency.
 Excellent combination of high elastic recovery, high tensile
strength and low weight.

80. REFERENCES:
 World Encyclopedia – Lexicon
 Encyclopedia –  C.P. Adams –  E.H. Greener –  Richard Van Noort – 
 William R. Proffit – Contemporary Orthodontics, 3rd edition, Mosby Company, 2000. 
 Graber Thomas M., Vanarsdall. Jr. Robert L. – Orthodontics,
 Current Principles and techniques, 2nd edition, Mosby Company, 1994.
 Raymond C. – Edgewise Orthodontics, 3rd edition,
 C.V. Mosby Company, 1982.  Kenneth J.
 Anusavice - Philips’ Science Of Dental Materials, 10th edition W.B. Sounders Company, 1996. 
 Craig Robert G. – Restorative Dental Materials, 9th edition C.V. Mosby Company, 1993.
BIBLOGRAPHY
 Comparative friction of wires under dry and wet conditions. Stannard, Gau, and Hanna; AJO; 1986;
89(6) :485-491. Interviews on orthodontic wires. Wilcock A.J. Jr.; JCO; 1988; XXII (8):484-489. 
 Some metallurgical aspects of orthodontic stainless steel. Wilkinson J.V.; Am. J. Of Orth.; 1962;
48(3):192-206. 
 Applied materials engineering for orthodontic wires. Wilcock A. J. Jr.; Australian Orth. J.; 1989;
11(1):22-29. 
 Stress relaxation and recovery behavior of composite archwire bending. Scott W. Zufall and Robert
P. Kusy; European Journal of Orth.; 2000; 1-12. 
 Mechanical properties and clinical application of orthodontic wires. Sunil Kapila and Rohit
Sachdeva; Am. J. of Dentofacial Orthopedics.; 1989; 96:100-109. 
 Some metallurgical aspects of orthodontic stainless steel. John V. Wilkinson, Am. J. Orth.;1962;
48:192-200. 
 A review of contemporary arch wires: Their properties and characteristics. Robert P. Kusy, Angle
Orthodontics; 1997; 197-207. BIBLOGRAPHY

81.  REFERENCES:
 William R. Proffit -Contemporary Orthodontics, 5th edition, Mosby Company, 20122. Graber Thomas M.,
.Vanarsdall. Jr. Robert L. – Orthodontics, Current Principles and techniques
 Titanium-niobium, a new finishing wire alloy. By Michel dalstra, Gabriella denes, birte melsen Clin orthod res.
2000 feb;3(1):6-144.
 A comparative evaluation of metallurgical properties of stainless steel and tma wires with Tiolium and titanium
niobium archwires by r devaki vijayalakshmi,ks nagachandran, pradeep kummi, p jayakumar (indian j dent
res,20(4),20095.
 A comparative evaluation of metallurgical properties of stainless steel and tma wires with Tiolium and titanium
niobium archwires by r devaki vijayalakshmi,ks nagachandran, pradeep kummi, p jayakumar (indian j dent
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