1. National and International Scenario
Presented By:
Sangram P. Ramane
PhD Scholar
Roll no. 1447
DIVISION OF BACTERIOLOGY AND MYCOLOGY, IVRI
Assignment
On
MYCOPLASMOLOGY

2. INTRODUCTION
 Mycoplasmas are a diverse group of cell wall less bacteria that infect
wide range worldwide (Whithear, 2001).
 Mycoplasmoses in wild animals - Unreported
Due to fastidious nature of pathogens / mild or chronic disease nature.
 Mycoplasmal diseases reported in free-ranging or captive wild animals,
have similar disease pattern as that in related domestic animals.
 Lesions associated with mycoplasmas are increasingly recognized and
pathogenecity is well described.
 Can cause respiratory disease, conjunctivitis, septicaemia and arthritis.

3. Mycoplasma reported in wild animals
Mycoplasma sp. Primary Host Wildlife Host Disease
M. arginini Various
Bighorn sheep
(Ovis canadensis)
Pneumonia,
Secondary
polyarthitis
M. capricolum ssp.
capripneumoniae
Goat
West Caucasian tur
(Capra ibex severtzovi)
M. capricolum ssp.
capricolum
Goat
Alpine ibex
(Capra ibex ibex)
Septicemia
M. conjunctivae Sheep, Goat
Alpine ibex,
Alpine chamois
(Rupicapra rupicapra)
Keratoconjunctivitis
M. mycoide ssp.
mycoides (LC)
Goat
Wild Goat
(Capra aegagrus cretica)
Septicemia
M. ovipneumoniae Sheep
Dall’s sheep
(Ovis dalli)
Pneumonia

4. Mycoplasma sp. Primary Host Wildlife Host Disease
M. phocicerebrale Harbor Seal
Harbor Seal
(Phoca vitulina)
Secondary
infections
M. phocirhinis Harbor Seal Harbor Seal
Secondary
infections
M. phocidae Harbor Seal Harbor Seal
Secondary
pneumonia
M. pneumoniae Human
Leaf monkey
(Trachypithecus
cristata)
Pneumonia
Unclossified
mycoplasma
Raccon
Racoon
(Ptocyon lotor)
Epiphysitis and
periostitis
Mycoplasma reported in wild animals

5. Type of birds M. gallisepticum M. meleagridis M. synoviae M. gallinarum
Chicken
Frequent
Infrequent or
not reported Common
Common
Domestic turkey Common Occasional
Peafowl and
Guinea fowl
Infrequent or not
reported
Infrequent or
not reported
Common Occasional
Pigeons Occasional
Infrequent or
not reported
Birds of prey
Infrequent
or not
reported
Wild turkey
Parrots
Pheasants and
Partridge Occasional
Ducks and Geese
Songbirds Common
Mycoplasma reported in wild birds

6.  Polyartitis
Mycoplasma associated polyarthritis in a Reticulated Giraffe (Giraffa
camelopardalis reticulata).
Recurrent episodes of lameness with temporary response to antimicrobial
therapy characterized the disease.
Mycoplasma sp. nucleic acid was detected in synovial fluid using PCR
(Hammond et al 2003).
 Balanoposthitis
Severe chronic balanoposthitis has been observed in free living European
bison.
M. bovigenitalium may play a role in the pathogenesis of balanoposthitis
(Thiede 2002).
Mycoplasmoses in Wild Ruminants

7.  Antibodies to M. agalactiae have been reported from Spanish ibex (Capra
pyrenaica) may be involved as reservoir for Contagious Agalactia (Bucker et
al 2008).
 Bronchopneuminia
Bronchopneumonia in bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) found in Eastern
North America.
M. ovipneumoniae is identified as causative agent.
Specific PCR tests then revealed the presence (Fischer et al 2008).
 Infectious keratoconjunctivitis
Occurs frequently in wild Caprinae such as Alpine chamois (Rupicapra
rupicapra), Alpine ibex (Capra ibex), European mouflon (Ovis orientalis
musimon), and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicu) (Giacometti et al.,
2002).
Main etiologic agent is M. conjunctivae (Marco et al 2009).
M. mycoides subsp. capri occasionally (Giangaspero et al 2010).
Mycoplasma infections of Wild Ruminants Contd.....

8.  Contagious caprine pleuropneuminia
An outbreak of CCPP in wild goat (Capra aegagrus), Nubian ibex (Capra
ibex nubiana), Laristan mouflon (Ovis orientalis laristanica), and gerenuk
(Litocranius walleri) occurred at Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation in the
State of Qatar.
Clinical symptoms and the necropsy findings based diagnosis and
confirmation by the isolation and identification of the causative organism.
CCPP should be considered a potential threat to wildlife and the
conservation of endangered ruminant species, especially in the Middle
East, where it is enzootic because of its presence in chronic carriers (Arif at
al 2007).
 Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia
Experimental infection can be induced but no any natural disease yet
identified in wild large ruminants like Water buffalo, African buffalo, Bison,
Yak, etc.
Mycoplasma infections of Wild Ruminants Contd.....

9.  Pneumonia
Outbreak of pneumonia in endangered markhors (Capra falconeri) in
Tajikistan in 2010.
The infection was diagnosed by histological examination and bacteriologic
testing.
M. capricolum subsp. capricolum was the sole infectious agent detected
(Ostrowski et al 2011)
Pattern of inflammation in the right lung in the necropsied markhor was
consistent with M. capricolum subsp. capricolum respiratory infection in
domestic goats.
 Systemic Infections
An outbreak of severe systemic mycoplasma infection in Vaal Rhebok (Pelea
capreolus) caused by M. capricolum subsp. capricolum and M. mycoides
subsp. mycoides (LC)
Identified by PCR survey of DNA samples from Rhebok (Nicolas et al 2005).
Mycoplasma infections of Wild Ruminants Contd.....

10.  Hemotropic Mycoplasma (Hemoplasmas)
M. ovis was detected using molecular techniques in herds of Rangifer
tarandus (Stoffregen et al 2006).
Cervids may be subclinical, chronic carriers.
‘Candidatus Mycoplasma erythrocervae’ and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma
heamocervae’ were identified in free-ranging Cervus nippon from Japan
(Watanabe et al 2010).
M. ovis-like organisms are identified in a herd of farmed white-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus) (Boes et al 2011) and in captive marsh deer
(Blastocerus dichotomus) from Brazil (Grazziotin et al 2011).
Mycoplasma infections of Wild Ruminants Contd.....

11.  Mycoplasma infections in wild birds is poorly understood. Found to be
associated with air sacculitis, pneumonia, tracheitis, polyarthitis,
keratoconjunctivitis, etc.
 M. falconis has only been isolated from falcons, but M. gypis and M.
buteonis have been recovered from members of both the Falconidae and
Accipitridae families (Lierz et al 2008).
 Mycoplasmal conjunctivitis
Reported in wild house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) due to M.
gallisepticum (EID Dispatch,1997) and has also been reported from other
wild bird species and found to infect songbirds (Farmer et al 2005).
Ley in et al in 2010 isolated M. sturni from a California House Finch with
Conjunctivitis.
Mycoplasmoses of Wild Birds

12. Among old world vultures
 M. gallinarum has been isolated from the URT (Loria et al 2008),
 Unidentified mycoplasmas have been cultured in Europe (Loria et al
2008),
 M. vulturii from pooled lung and spleen samples from an Oriental White-
backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis) (Oaks et al 2004).
Reports of mycoplasmas from New World vultures
 M. gallinarum, an unidentified mycoplasma highly similar to M.
glycophilum, and two unidentified mycoplasmas with similarities to M.
falconis and M. gateae from URT of Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus) in UK
(Loria et al 2008).
 M. corogypsi from the trachea of asymptomatic captive Peregrine Falcons
(Falco peregrinus), Saker Falcons (Falco cherrug), and gyr-saker hybrids in
the Middle East (Lierz et al 2002).
 M. neophronis sp. nov. isolated from tracheae of Canarian Egyptian
vultures (Neophron percnopterus majorensis) (Perez et al 2011).
Mycoplasma infections of Wild Birds Contd.....

13.  Mycoplasmas were first isolated from sea mammals suffering respiratory
disease about 20 yr ago but data are still lacking regarding their primary
role in disease (Giebel et al 1991).
 But frequent reports has been encountered from pinnipeds and isolation
of mycoplasmas is most common from phocid seals.
 Mycoplasma spp. are the most likely causative agents of ‘‘seal finger,’’
which is a potentially serious infection that may develop in people that
have been bitten by pinnipeds or in people whose broken skin comes into
contact with infected pinniped tissue.
 Culture of oral swabs from a variety of pinnipeds has demonstrated that
Mycoplasma spp. are part of the normal oral flora (Brown et al 2005).
Mycoplasmoses of Marine animals

14.  Three species from phocids are M. phocicerebrale, M. phocae, and M.
phocirhinis (Konigsson et al 2001)
Recently isolated using lung tissue from grey and common seals from UK
(Ayling et al 2011).
 Death of four sea lions in which it was associated with either pneumonia or
polyarthritis, represent a novel species, M. zalophi (Haulena et al 2006).
 From harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) M. phocicerebrale and
Mycoplasma spp. 13CL were isolated from the lungs, liver and kidneys
(Foster et al 2011).
 Hemotrophic mycoplasmas identified in naturally infected California sea
lions (Zalophus californianus) (Volokhov et al 2011).
Provisional name Candidatus Mycoplasma haemozalophi sp. nov.
Mycoplasma infections of Marine animals Contd.....

15.  Mycoplasmas are associated with significant morbidity and mortality in
Free-living Gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) (Berish et al 2010),
Mojave desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii) (Brown et al 2004),
Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) (Feldman et al 2006),
Ornate box turtles (Terrapene ornate ornata) (Farkas et al 2009) and in
Captive and pet Testudo spp. (Soares et al 2004).
 Tortoises and turtles commonly suffer from upper respiratory tract disease
(URTD). M. agassizi is the preponderant causative agent.
Characterized by
Mild to severe rhinitis,
Nasal and ocular discharge,
Conjunctivitis,
Periocular edema.
Upper Respiratory Tract Disease (URTD) and Rhinitis-Stomatitis
Complex (RSC)

16.  A new Mycoplasma sp. was associated with URTD-LS in native box turtles
(Terrapene carolina carolina) diagnosed by PCR (Feldman et al 2006). 16S
rRNA gene sequence closely related to, but distinct from, M. agassizii.
 Rhinitis and stomatitis complex are commonly observed in captive tortoise
worldwide.
Loss of weight,
Nasal discharge,
Weakened physical condition,
Mortality.
Disease is highly transmissible because foamy exudates from the external
nares provides a significant source of infection for horizontal transmission.
 M. agassizii are considered to be pathogenic and involved in the rhinitis-
stomatitis complex, shares etiology with herpesvirus (Salinas et al 2011).
Mycoplasma infections of Marine animals Contd.....

17.  Most species isolated from humans have also been found in nonhuman
primates and some scientist suggest that these species should be
considered of primates rather than human.
 Most of the information available is from the captive primates and hence
there may be anthroponotic infections.
 Reports of fully characterized Mycoplasma spp. that are unique to primates
are few.
 M. indiense has been isolated from the Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)
and baboon (Papio anubis) (Hill 1993). While there are some reports of
isolation of M. moatsii from the captured Grivet monkey (Cercopithecus
aethiops).
Mycoplasmoses non-human primates

18.  Chorioamnionitis
Genital mycoplasmosis found to be associated with U. parvum and M.
hominis.
Causes preterm delivery and fetal pneumonia in Rhesus Macaques (Novy
et al 2009).
Quantified in this amniotic fluid and documented in foetal tissues by
culture and PCR (Novy et al 2009).
 Mycoplasmal pneumonia
M. pneumoniae also found to be associated with the pneumonia and
polyathitis in these primates.
Occurred at Beijing Zoo in a Chimpanzee and showed symptom similarity
to those of that occurred in children.
And is treated by using azithromycin (Duoying et al 2011).
Mycoplasma infections of Primates Contd.....

19. Mycoplasmoses of Wild Carnivores
 Although mycoplasmas are widely distributed in wild carnivores, only few
reports are there.
 Mycoplasmas from the wild carnivores in the past
Like M. leonis which was identified as M. arginini from brains and lungs of
Panthera leo,
M. felis from Felis serval,
A. laidlawii from lungs of Lynx,
Mycoplasma spp. from Racoon (Procyon lotor) associated with Epiphysitis
and periostitis.
 M. haemofelis and ‘Candidatus M. haemominutum’ has been detected
in ticks (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) from lion (Panthera leo)using RT-PCR in
South Africa (Fyumagwa et al 2008).

20.  Mycoplasmas in blood samples of jaguars (Panthera onca), pumas (Puma
concolor), ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), jaguarondis (Puma yagouaroundi),
little spotted cats (Leopardus tigrinus), bush dogs (Speothos venaticus) and
European wolves has been detected by using molecular techniques (André
et al 2011) from Brazil.
Found positive for:
Candidatus M. haemominutum,
M. haemofelis,
Candidatus M. turicensis,
Candidatus M. haematoparvum
 A multiplex PCR was developed for the detection of feline hemotropic
mycoplasmas which Simultaneously differentiates infections of M.
haemofelis , Candidatus M. haemominutum and Candidatus M. turicensis
in wild feline blood and spleen (Suksai et al 2010).
Mycoplasma infections of Wild Carnivores Contd.....

21. INDIAN SCENARIO
 M. gallisepticum has been found to be isolated from House sparrow
(Passer domesticus) in India (Jain et al 1971).
 Tripathy et al studied an outbreak of M. gallisepticum infection
among peafowls (Pavo cristatus) in 1971.
 Studies conducted on Indian white-backed vulture (Gyps bengalensis)
found that an unusual intracellular mycoplasma with the proposed
name M. vulturii was present in pooled lung and spleen samples
(Oaks et al 2004).

22. … Thank You