This document discusses different methods for collecting data in research, including primary and secondary sources. For primary sources, it describes observation methods, interviews, and questionnaires. For observation, it distinguishes between participant and non-participant observation. For interviews, it discusses structured vs unstructured formats. For questionnaires, it provides tips for effective design and administration methods like mail, collective, and in public. Overall, the document provides guidance on selecting an appropriate data collection method based on the research questions and population.

1. KNOWLEDGE FOR THE BENEFIT OF HUMANITYKNOWLEDGE FOR THE BENEFIT OF HUMANITY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (HFS4343)
SELECTING A DATA
COLLECTION METHOD
Dr.Dr. MohdMohd RazifRazif ShahrilShahril
School of Nutrition & DieteticsSchool of Nutrition & Dietetics
Faculty of Health SciencesFaculty of Health Sciences
UniversitiUniversiti SultanSultan ZainalZainal AbidinAbidin
1

2. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Topic Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to;
• identify differences in method of data collection in
quantitative and qualitative research
• describe major approaches to information gathering
• explain data collection methods using primary sources
• explain data collection methods using secondary
sources
2

3. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Differences in methods of data collection
• What philosophical epistemology is underpinning your
approach to research enquiry?
• How was the information collected? Structured or
unstructured/flexible format?
• Were the questions or issues discussed during data
collection predetermined or developed during data
collection?
• How was the information you gathered recorded?
Descriptive, narrative, categorical, quantitative form or
on a scale?
• How was the information analysed? Descriptive,
categorical or numerical analysis?
• How do you propose to communicate the findings?
Descriptive or analytical manner?
3

4. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Differences in methods of data collection
4

5. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Information gathering
5
1111 2222

6. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Information gathering
• Primary data
– Primary sources e.g. measured, observed,
interviewed, questionnaire
• Secondary data
– Secondary sources e.g. Census Bureau Data, public
health data, economic data, historical search, medical
records etc
6

7. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Collecting data using primary sources
• Methods for collecting data using primary sources
7
OBSERVATION INTERVIEWING QUESTIONNAIRE

8. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Observation
• Purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching
and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes
place
• Most appropriate when;
– you are more interested in the behaviour than in the
perceptions of individuals,
– subjects are so involved in the interaction that they
are unable to provide objective information about it
8

9. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Types of observation
• Participant observation
– Researcher participate in activities of the group being
observed in the same manner
• Non-participant observation
– researcher do not get involved in the activities of the
group but remain a passive observer, watching and
listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from
this
9

10. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Problems with using ‘observation’
• Hawthorne effect – individuals or groups become aware
that they are being observed and change their behaviour
– What is observed may not represent their normal behaviour
• Possibility of observer bias
• Interpretation drawn from observation varies between
observer
• Possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording
10

11. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Situation where we can ‘observe’
• Natural observation
– Observing a group in its natural operation rather than
intervening in its activities
• Controlled observation
– Introducing stimulus to the group for it to react to and
observing the reaction
11

12. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Recording observation
• Narrative recording
• Using scales
• Categorical recording
• Recording on electronic devices
12
What are the advantages and disadvantages of eachWhat are the advantages and disadvantages of each
recording observation method?
Lets shout some ideas at:
http://padlet.com/razifshahril/recordingobservation

13. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
The interview
• Any person-to-person interaction, either face to face or
otherwise, between two or more individuals with a
specific purpose in mind is called an interview.
13

14. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Types of interview
• Ensure
14

15. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Unstructured interview
• The researcher is free to order these in whatever
sequence they wish.
• Have complete freedom in terms of the wording they use
and the way they explain questions to their respondents.
• The researcher may formulate questions and raise
issues on the spur of the moment, depending upon what
occurs to them in the context of the discussion.
• Common in qualitative research.
15

16. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Structured interview
• the researcher asks a predetermined set of questions,
using the same wording and order of questions as
specified in the interview schedule.
– A written list of questions, open ended or closed, prepared for
use by an interviewer in a person-to-person interaction
– Note that an interview schedule is a research tool/instrument for
collecting data, whereas interviewing is a method of data
collection.
• One of the main advantages of the structured interview
is that it provides uniform information, which assures the
comparability of data.
16

17. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
17

18. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
The questionnaire
• Written list of questions, the answers to which are
recorded by respondents.
• Respondents read the questions, interpret what is
expected and then write down the answers.
18
Interview scheduleInterview schedule QuestionnaireQuestionnaire
interviewer who asks the questions
(and if necessary, explains them)
and records the respondent’s replies
replies are recorded by the
respondents themselves.

19. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Qualities of a good questionnaire
• Questions clear and easy to understand
• Layout easy to read and pleasant to eyes
• Sequence should be easy to follow
• Developed in interactive style – respondents should feel
as if someone is talking to them
• Sensitive questions prefaced by an interactive statement
(different fonts) explaining the relevance of the questions
19

20. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Methods of administering a questionnaire
• Mailed questionnaire
– send the questionnaire to
prospective respondents by
mail.
– usually it is a good idea to
send a prepaid, self-
addressed envelope with
the questionnaire.
– must be accompanied by a
covering letter
– major problems - low
response rate.
20

21. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Methods of administering a questionnaire
• Collective administration
– captive audience - people assembled in one place.
– ensures a high response rate
– can explain the purpose, relevance and importance of
the study and clarify any questions that respondents
may have
21

22. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Methods of administering a questionnaire
• Administration in a public area
– administer a questionnaire in a public place such as a
shopping centre, health centre, hospital, school or pub.
– depends upon the type of study population you are
looking for and where it is likely to be found.
– slightly more time consuming
22

23. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Interview or questionnaire??
• The choice should be based on;
– The nature of investigation
• Sensitive issues? Anonymity?
– The geographical distribution of the study population
• population scattered or stays in one place
– The type of study population
• Age, physical and mental abilities
23

24. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Advantages and disadvantages of a
questionnaire
24
AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages
• Less expensive
• Offers greater anonymity
• Application is limited
• Low response rate
• Self-selecting bias
• Opportunity to clarify issues is
lacking
• Spontaneous responses are not
allowed for
• Response to a question may be
influenced by the response to other
questions
• It is possible to consult others
(mailed questionnaire)

25. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Advantages and disadvantages of the
interview
25
AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages
• More appropriate for complex
situation
• Useful for collecting in-depth
information
• Information can be supplemented
• Questions can be explained
• Interviewing has a wider application
• Time consuming
• Quality of data depends upon the
quality of the interaction
• Quality of data depends upon the
quality of the interviewer
• Quality of data depends vary when
many interviewer are used
• The researcher may introduce
his/her bias

26. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Contents of the covering letter
• Introduce you and the institution you are representing
• Describe the main objectives of the study
• Explain the relevance of the study
• Convey any general instructions
• Indicate that participation in the study is voluntary
• Assure respondents of the anonymity of the information
provided by them
• Provide a contact number in case they have any questions;
• Give a return address for the questionnaire and a deadline for
its return;
• Thank them for their participation in the study.
26

27. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Forms of question
• Open ended questions
– Possible responses are not given.
– respondents write down the answers in his/her words.
– investigators records the answers either verbatim or
in a summary
• Closed questions
– possible answers are set out and the respondent or
the investigator ticks the category that best describes
the respondent’s answer
– category ‘Other/please explain’ to accommodate any
response not listed
27

28. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Open-ended questions
28
What are the advantages and disadvantages?What are the advantages and disadvantages?

29. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Closed questions
29
What are the advantages and disadvantages?What are the advantages and disadvantages?

30. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Closed questions
30

31. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Formulating effective questions
• Always use simple and everyday language
• Do not use ambiguous (more than one meaning)
questions
• Do not ask double-barrelled (a question within a
question) questions
• Dot not ask leading questions (e.g. Smoking is bad,
isn’t?)
• Do not ask questions based on presumptions (e.g.
Everyone is asked on how many cigarettes do they
smoke in a day) – assuming everyone is a smoker
31

32. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Other qualities of a good question
• Will answer the research questions
• Written at a 5th grade language
• Ask for an answer on only one dimension
• Nonthreatening
• Does not imply a certain type of answer
• Avoid words that might create a negative reaction in
some people regardless of the content of the statement
32

33. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Constructing a research instrument in
quantitative research
33
• Clearly define study objectives, research
questions or hypothesis
Step
1
• For each study objectives, research
questions or hypothesis, list all associated
questions you want to answer in your
study
Step
2

34. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Constructing a research instrument in
quantitative research (cont.)
34
• Take each questions that you
identified in Step 2 and list the
information required to answer it
Step
3
• Formulate questions that you want to
ask your respondents to obtain the
required information
Step
4

35. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
35

36. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Methods of data collection in qualitative
research
• Unstructured interviews
– In-depth interviews
– Focus group interviews
– Narratives
– Oral histories
• Participant observation
• Secondary sources
36

37. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Collecting data using secondary sources
• Both qualitative and quantitative research studies use
secondary sources as a method of data collection.
– In quantitative research the information extracted is
categorical or numerical.
– In qualitative research you usually extract descriptive
(historical and current) and narrative information.
• Categories of secondary sources;
– Government or semi-government publications
– Earlier research
– Personal records
– Mass media
37

38. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N
Problems with using data from
secondary sources
• Validity and reliability
• Personal bias
• Availability of data
• Format
38

39. Thank YouThank You
39