2. The New Nation
Ad interim gov’t set up in March 1836
David G. Burnet elected President
Lorenzo de Zavala elected Vice-President
Constitution of 1836
Gov’t could solicit loans
Issue promissory notes
Negotiate treaties
Develop a military (army/navy)
Challenges
Finances
Indians
Infrastructure
Constant fear of Mexican Invasion
Establishing a permanent government
General election to establish permanent gov’t originally planned for
December, but Burnet approved elections in September 1836
4. Election of 1836
Sam Houston won the Presidency easily due to his popularity after
San Jacinto
Won over Henry Smith and Stephen F. Austin
Mirabeau B. Lamar chosen as Vice-President
Constitution of 1836
Texans easily approved the constitution
Mandate for annexation to the United States
Marked the endorsement of U.S. institutions to be transplanted to
Texas
Republicanism was a primary example
Presidential Elections
Served three-year terms, except the first president (limited to two years)
Presidents could serve alternate terms, but could not succeed
themselves
5. Supporting Concepts
Adherence to Anglo-American lifeways
English the primary language of Texas
Religious toleration
Catholics were the exception
Free enterprise
Economic competition without gov’t interference
Republican Government
Sovereignty was based upon the masses
Taken wholesale from the United States
Checks and balances
Three branches of gov’t
Regularly scheduled elections
Sam Houston’s administration greatly supported these ideals
Houston was a U.S. congressman and Gov. of Tennessee
Lamar served in the Georgia legislature
6. Houston’s administration
Mixture of political allies and opponents
Wanted to create national harmony by integrating prewar factions
Determined to have his political enemies as close as possible
Diplomatic Recognition
One of Houston’s immediate concerns
Needed financial aid from other countries
Recognition equals credibility; wanted to be seen as a legitimate
nation separate of Mexico
United States recognition
Annexation was the goal, but U.S. President Jackson feared northern
opposition
Abolitionists in the U.S. saw annexation of Texas as part of a slave power
conspiracy in the South
Did not act on annexation during his presidency
1837, the U.S. becomes the first country to recognize the Republic of
Texas
8. Financial Difficulties
$1.25 million debt from the war and provisional gov’t
Gov’t could not pay public officials, military, or its war
debt
Gov’t attempted to impose taxes
Little revenue due to Texans facing economic difficulties and
little cash
Congress authorized printing of promissory notes
Depreciation weakened the currency
9. Budget Cuts
Houston targets defense spending for reduction
Only kept 600 volunteer soldiers on active duty
Offered to pay others to return to the U.S. or gave them 1,280
acres if they wished to stay in Texas
Indian Campaigns
Avoided conflict whenever possible
Public Debt
At the end of Houston’s term, the debt was close to $2
million
10. Legal Boundaries
First Congress fixed the Republic’s boundary at the Rio
Grande
From its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico to its source in the
Rockies
Then, northward to the 42nd parallel
Mexican municipios became county units
District Courts formed
11.
12. Immigration and Land Policy
Legislation passed to encourage immigration
To raise revenue
Land policy
Rewarded veterans
Also attempted to populate the entire region of the Republic
Heads of families received 640 acres; single men received 320
acres
Texas officials wanted people to purchase public land to help
pay the debt
However, few people could afford to buy real estate
Overall, the Texas gov’t apportioned roughly 37 million
acres (1836-1841)
13. Military and Defense
Congress allocated funds for a small navy and local militias
Citizen soldiers replaced the volunteer army
The Texas Rangers
Created in May 1837 by Congress
Most of the founding Rangers were citizen soldiers from local
militias
Volunteered to complete a specific mission
Returned to civilian life afterwards
Duplicated the “strike and pursue” tactics of the Tejano
militias
Protected the frontier from Indian attacks on settlers
The Texas Rangers were considered a unique Texas invention
14.
15. Texas Political Factions
Political parties did not exist, but pro- or anti-Houston factions did
Lamar was aligned with the anti-Houston faction
Lamar’s Complaints
Cherokee treaty
Denounced Houston for failing to eliminate Indian dangers on the western
frontier; did not endorse the neutrality treaty
Foreign relations
Houston had not gotten Mexico to acknowledge Texas’ independence
Lamar did not want U.S. annexation
Envisioned Texas a great republican power some day
Financial Issues
Blamed the budget deficit on Houston’s financial ineptness
Election of 1838
Lamar easily won as Houston’s faction did not have a suitable candidate
David G. Burnet was elected as Vice-President
17. Public Debt
Lamar campaigned that he would alleviate the debt by
securing a $5 million loan
He never secured it
He issued $3 million of noninterest-bearing promissory
notes
Also issued legal tender known as Texas Redbacks
No reserves in the treasury; only public honor and public
land to back the currency
Texas money cheapened as a result
By 1841, one dollar of the Republic’s paper money was
worth 12 to 15 cents in U.S. currency
21. Liberal Fiscal Policy
Lamar spent extravagantly
Money sources
Business licenses
Limited available credit
Taxes on slaves
$457,380 loan from a bank in Philadelphia (1839)
Military budget
Built up the navy
Increased staffs of frontier garrisons
Launched a costly campaign against the Indians
Campaigned against the Cherokees; Houston’s friend Chief Bowles killed
Cost the Republic $2.5 million
Moved the Texas capitol
Transferred the capitol from Houston to Austin (on the Colorado River)
Another way to lash out against Sam Houston’s influence
Founded the Texas State Library
22. Liberal Fiscal Policy
Debate over Lamar’s policy
Was it visionary or foolish?
Some historians see it as a well-thought out plan to ensure Texas’
survival until the U.S. annexed it in the mid-1840s
Foreign Relations with Mexico
Sent 3 separate agents to Mexico to enact a peace settlement
They all failed
Lamar argued that the Rio Grande River was the western
boundary of Texas
He attempted to buy the region between the Nueces River and the
Rio Grande (Lamar attempted to be diplomatic)
Friction over this led to the Santa Fe Expedition
23.
24. Santa Fe Expedition
Lamar assumed that New Mexico would rather be Texans than Mexican
citizens
Decided to send an expedition to Santa Fe to spread their influence and goodwill
Congress refused to fund the expedition in 1839 and 1840
Lamar took $89,000 from the Texas Treasury and send their expedition on
presidential orders
320 armed soldiers marched over 1,000 miles under the command of Hugh McLeod
Left in June 1841, finally got there in October 1841
As soon as the Texans arrived in Santa Fe, Mexican soldiers intercepted
them and forced them to march to Mexico City
Many Texans died during the march
Congress was furious when they found out
The legislature censured Lamar and almost impeached him
However, his three year term was coming to a close and they did not want to cause
further friction
25. Recognition in Europe
Lamar sent agents to Europe to petition for diplomatic
recognition and loans
Lamar was really trying to get the $5 million loan he promised
England
Strong abolitionist sentiment in England; wanted to keep Texas at
arm’s length
Also wanted to maintain cordial relations with Mexico
Consented to only a trade agreement in 1838
France
Wanted to acquire new friend in North America
Also liked the prospect of Texas independence from the U.S.
France sent Count Alphonse de Saligny to inspect Texas
Favorable review
France became the first European nation to recognize the Republic
in September 1839
26. Recognition in Europe
Netherlands
Acknowledge Texas’ independence in September 1840
England’s recognition
Finally recognized diplomatic relations in November 1840
Lamar’s $5 million loan
Though agents in Europe successful obtained trade
agreements and international recognition, they were not able
to secure Lamar’s loan
Economic issues in Europe prompted financial restraint
27. “The Father of Texas Education”
Lamar’s view: “Cultivated mind is the guardian genius
of democracy and while guided and controlled by virtue,
the noblest attribute of man. It is the only dictator that
freemen acknowledge and the only security that
freemen desire.
County Education Allocations
Set aside 4 leagues (17,714 acres) of land in each county for
primary schools
Higher Education
50 leagues of land was allocated for the support of two
universities
Later became Texas A&M and the University of Texas
28. Education in the Republic
Though Lamar made progressive reform to improve
education, it largely remained rudimentary
Unpredictable weather, bad infrastructure, familial duties,
and Indian raids impeded the routine of learning
Educational reforms such as those championed by
Horace Mann in the U.S. did not make it to Texas
Public education funded by tax payers
Non-sectarian educational facilities
Well-educated teachers
Most elite families sent their children to the U.S.
Little literature was produced by citizens in the Republic
29. Folk Literature in the Republic
Colorful tall tales and exaggerated humor
Largely based in the oral tradition of common people
Similar to preservation goals of oral historians today
Davy Crockett and Sam Houston were popular subjects
Houston’s constant drinking and affinity for whiskey
Crockett’s infamous violin serenade at the Alamo
These were individuals that the common man could identify with
Newspapers in the Republic
The Telegraph and Texas Register were fairly successful
publicans
Austin started two newspapers that covered political issues
and frontier affairs
30. The Homestead Act
Passed in 1839
Protected citizens from seizure of their homes, land,
tools, and work animals for any debts they had
Similar to laws in Hispanic culture
The Texas Empresario System
Instituted in 1840-1841
Modeled on the Mexican colonization program
Based on the Constitution of 1824
Issued contracts to immigration agents
Entrusted with the duty of settling colonists in specific areas
31. Houston’s comeback
Houston’s faction charged Lamar with fiscal ineptness
also
Lamar racked up $7 million in debt by 1841
Houston saw the relocation of the capitol to Austin as
financially irresponsible (and the location was vulnerable to
Indian attack)
Houston easily defeated Burnet (the Lamar candidate)
Houston’s second term: December 1841 to December
1844
33. Bureaucratic Retrenchment
Congress terminated dozens of offices
Lowered salaries of public officials
Reduced military forces
Only a few companies of Texas Rangers were left
Houston’s Fiscal Policy
Overturned fiscal policies passed by Lamar
Only $200,000 of legal tender was printed
Houston spent less than $600,000 in his second term
34. Occupation of San Antonio
After Lamar’s blunder in Santa Fe, Santa Anna orders
the army to cross the Rio Grande and into San Antonio
He wanted to spread his influence and goodwill
San Antonio fell again to the Mexicans
Left after 2 days, but took 60 prisoners with them
Houston responds by sending General Alexander
Somervell to the Rio Grande
Expedition of 750 men
Goal was to protect the border from future invasions
35. The Mier Expedition
300 of Somervell’s men decided to ignore the General
and begin a counteroffensive into Mexico
On Christmas Day 1842, 260 Texans entered Mier
They were captured by Mexican infantrymen
The prisoners were marched to Mexico City
A majority managed to escape temporarily
Only 4 made it back to Texas
Mexican troops recaptured 176 Texans
Santa Anna initially ordered all the Texans to be
executed
36.
37. The Black Bean Episode
In Mexico City, Santa Anna reduced the number of Texans to
be executed to 10 percent
The men to be executed would be chosen by lottery
The Texans were forced to draw from a pot containing 159 white
beans and 17 black beans
Those who drew the black beans would die by firing squad
Results of the Mier Expedition
Texans began to want U.S. annexation again
Benefits of joining the Union
Financial security; Texas was almost bankrupt
Military security; fear of a massive Mexican invasion and Indian
raids
Land values; great potential for land value profits
38.
39. Houston on Annexation
U.S. sentiment toward annexation was favorable due to England’s
assistance to Texas
Afraid that Britain would gain too much influence in North America
again
Annexation of Texas fit into most Americans’ goal of Manifest
Destiny
However, northern abolitionists and “Free Soilers” were staunchly
opposed to annexing another slave state
U.S. President John Tyler supported an annexation treaty in April
1844
Rejected by the U.S. Senate 35 to 16
Former President Martin Van Buren worked especially hard to make
sure Texas was not annexed
Houston began courting the British, French, and the pro-
annexation camp in the U.S.
Attempting to gain influence with the U.S. through diplomacy
42. What is it?
• The driving force (one component) behind America’s expansion to the west (specifically
the Pacific Coast)
• Was not an official government policy
• Promoted heavily in newspapers, posters, and other propaganda
• John O’Sullivan first uses the term in a newspaper in 1845
• “manifest destiny to overspread the continent”
• Regarding the annexation of Texas
• Says America was “chosen” to lead the continent out of wilderness
• Americans were “chosen” to establish civilization
What caused it?
• Myth of the Chosen Nation – God chose the Americans to establish democracy from sea
to shining sea
• The Louisiana Purchase – over 1/3 of the continent is gained by Jefferson’s legislation
• Government saw the appeal of potential land bringing more political power to the
growing nation
• Land Availability + Politics + Religion = Manifest Destiny
43. What it meant to the country
• Through physical expansion to the west, the United States would be set on a
course to become a political and social superpower
• Manifest Destiny adds fuel to the fire of expansion
• Advertising potential for great wealth in minerals in the West
• Promoting programs to help the downtrodden acquire and keep land in the
West (if they paid their way)
Results
• Many Easterners head to the West in search of riches and a new start
• Most believing they were helping the US achieve Manifest Destiny and it was
God’s chosen path for them
• Manifest Destiny expands to foreign policy
• Becomes the driving force behind the Mexican-American War
• Later, the Spanish-American War (after we achieve “sea to shining sea”)
• Today, becomes intertwined with globalization
• We must spread democracy throughout the world
44. Election of 1844
Jones was Houston’s Secretary of
State
Easily won the presidency on a
platform similar to Houston’s
Kenneth Lewis Anderson was his
Vice-President
Ran a virtually silent campaign
Last President of the Republic
Term of office: December 1844 –
February 1846
45. Financial Issues
Jones was never able to rein in
the Republic’s debt
By the time Texas was annexed,
the debt was roughly $10 million
Annexation
Before U.S. President John Tyler
left office, he proposed Texas
annexation one last time
through a joint resolution
Only required a majority approval
of both houses of Congress
John Tyler
46. President Jones’ Silence
Jones was largely silent on the issue of annexation throughout
his presidency
Was attempting to await the outcome of annexation, treaty, and
independence offers
Many were the brain-child of Houston’s second term
Late 1844, the Texas Congress declared their intent to join the
United States
Popular sentiment grew
People began to burn effigies of Jones due to his apparent
complacence on the issue
June 1845, Jones put two choices up for consideration
Remain an independent nation
Mexico agreed to a treaty recognizing Texas’ independence
Join the United States
People overwhelming wished to join the United States
47.
48. Texians
Individuals that took extreme pride in the nation
“Rugged Individualism” – valued resiliency, self-
reliance, and courage
Plays into Manifest Destiny; these were the people
expected to go and tame the West for the cause of M.D.
Typically a largely undisciplined and lawless
society
Social pressures as a result of constant danger was a
significant cause
49. Indians
Texas had no clear Indian policy and no standing
treaties
Many tribes verged on extinction
Cherokees
Sam Houston negotiated a treaty with the Cherokees in 1835
acknowledging their rights to lands in East Texas
The First Congress rejected this agreement, and Lamar’s
election extinguished their hopes of becoming recognized
landowners
The Cherokees resisted Lamar’s demand for their removal
until Texas troops killed Chief Duwali in the Battle of Neches
in 1839
50. Indians
Comanches
Comanches had no real tribal government and constantly
breached treaties that Houston had negotiated
Comanche raids were characterized by destruction of
property, murder, and hostage taking
In March 1840, Texans met with the Comanches at the
Council House in San Antonio to negotiate hostage
release. However, the negotiations failed, and both sides
resumed their attacks
In October 1844, Houston negotiated a treaty of peace and
commerce that led to some tranquility, but they never
stopped marauding completely
51. Tejanos
Tejanos were torn between viewing their destinies as tied to
Anglo-Americans and expressing caution toward a people
who viewed them with disgust and contempt
Tejanos were numerically disadvantaged, business was
conducted in a foreign language, and most were not
familiar with the new form of politics.
They described themselves as “foreigners in their native land.”
Tejanos adopted many of the new customs and habits in
addition to retaining their cultural heritage
Most struggled finding a niche in Anglo society and
supported themselves in the ranching and freighting
industries
52. Election of 1844
• Results
• James Polk wins (friend of Andrew Jackson, Tennessee slaveholder)
• He supported Texas annexation (even though it was Tyler’s idea)
• Supported “reoccupation” of Oregon
Polk’s Goals
• Reduce tariffs
• Settle the Oregon dispute (“Fifty-four Forty or Fight!!”)
• Make California a state
Oregon Territory Controversy
• Democrats wanted Polk to be as uncompromising on Oregon as he was on Texas annexation
• “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” – U.S. should be prepared to go to war with Britain (again) if they were
unwilling to move their border north to the 54, 40 degree boundary (near Russian-owned Alaska at
this point)
• Polk decides to be diplomatic and settles on the 49th parallel (where Washington and Vancouver, B.C.
still separate the two countries today)
• Bottom line: Manifest Destiny is attempting to claim British territory in the Northwest
53. Oregon obtained, now on to Mexico!
• Polk tries diplomacy again
• Sends John Slidell to buy California, New Mexico, most of Arizona, and the Rio Grande border of
Texas for $30 million
• They didn’t take it; government was way too unstable and did not want to be a pawn of U.S.
imperialism
• Mexico also felt that they still owned Texas and the U.S. was plotting to take all of Mexico
eventually
• Thornton Affair
• Detachment of U.S. troops scouted near the Rio Grande border (near present-day Brownsville)
• Skirmish with Mexican troops; 11 U.S. troops die
• Gives the U.S. a reason to declare war though the circumstances behind the attack are still
uncertain
• Declaring War
• Polk uses the Thornton Affair and Mexico’s refusal to sell their land as a cause for war
• Exaggerates and says the Mexicans were actively attacking American soil
• War declared on 13 May 1846
• Polarization on the War
• Whigs (North and South) vehemently denounce the war; see Manifest Destiny causing
unnecessary expansion with a racist undertone
• Democrats (especially Southerners) support the war; see the merits of Manifest Destiny
54. Fighting the War on Three Fronts (1846-1848)
• Santa Fe
• Led by General Stephen Kerney
• Goal was to move through NM, AZ, and the Sonoran desert to meet
up with troops in California
• California
• Kerney brings his troops through NM and AZ; arrives in California
in late 1846
• Finally defeats the Mexicans near Los Angeles in January 1847
• Central Mexico
• Polk sends General Zachary Taylor, finally occupies Mexico City in
September 1847
55. 6,000 Texans participated in the war
Texas Rangers
Pseudo reconnaissance detachment for Zachary Taylor’s army
Crucial individuals
John Coffee “Jack” Hayes, Ben McCulloch, William A. “Big Foot”
Wallace, Mustang Grey, and Samuel H. Walker
Received numerous commendations from the U.S. military
Notoriety in Mexico
Known for extreme frontier individualism
Took no prisoners, harassed civilians, and killed anyone suspected
of supporting Mexico
Known as “Los Diablos Tejanos” (The Texas Devils) by civilians
56. Samuel H. Walker John Coffee “Jack” Hays Ben McCulloch
William A. “Big Foot” Wallace
57. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
• Land north of the Rio Grade, California, and everything in between up for
grabs
• Mexico sells this land for $18 million (with a lot of influence from U.S. military)
• U.S. gain of 1.2 million square miles
Why Not Take All of Mexico?
• Americans tired of expansion into Latin America
• Manifest Destiny took on a selective, racist mentality
• Americans came to believe Mexicans were inferior and did not want to include
them as citizens
Slavery Issue
Many in the U.S. looked to the South for the future of the new territory
Texas was now considered a major player in the “free” or “slave” state debate
