ANNA UNIVERSITY M.ARCH ENVIRONMENTAL ARCHITECTURE SEMESTER - I

1. M.ARCH. (ENVIRONNEMENTAL ARCHITECTURE)
ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
ANNA UNIVERSITY
SEMESTER - I

2. CONTENTS
UNIT I ENERGY SOURCES
 Introduction to nexus between Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development
 Energy transformation from source to services:
 Energy sources
 Sun as the source of energy;
 Biological processes;
 Photosynthesis;
 Food chains,
 Classification of energy sources
 Quality and concentration of energy sources;
 Fossil fuel reserves - estimates, duration;
 Theory of renewability, Renewable resources;
 Overview of global/ India’s energy scenario.
UNIT II ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
 Ecological principles,
 Concept of ecosystems,
 Ecosystem theories,
 Energy resources and their inter-linkages,
 Energy flow,
 The impacts of human activities on energy flow in major man-made ecosystems-
 Agricultural, industrial and urban ecosystems.
UNIT III ENERGY SYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENT
 Environmental effects of energy extraction, Conversion and use;
 Sources of pollution from energy technologies (both renewable and non renewable);
 Primary and secondary pollutants;
 Consequence of pollution and population growth;
 Air, water, soil, thermal, noise pollution –cause and effect;
 Pollution control methods,
 Sources and impacts;
 Environmental laws on pollution control.
 Kyoto Protocol;
 Conference of Parties (COP);
 Clean Development Mechanism,
 Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation.

3. UNIT IV GREEN INNOVATION & SUSTAINABILITY
 Emerging trends process/product innovation-,
 Technological / environmental leap-frogging;
 Eco/green technologies for addressing the problemsof Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture and
Biodiversity
 Eco-restoration
 phytoremediation,
 Ecological sanitation,
 Renewable energy technologies,
 Industrial ecology,
 Agro ecology
 other appropriate green technologies.
UNIT V GREEN ENERGY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
 The inseparable linkages of life supporting systems,
 Biodiversity and ecosystem services and their implications for sustainable development;
 Global warming;
 Greenhouse gas emissions,impacts,mitigation and adaptation;
 Future energy Systems-clean/green energy technologies;
 International agreements/conventions on energy and sustainability –
 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC).

4. ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
UNIT I ENERGYSOURCES
Introduction to nexus between Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development
Energy and the Environment
Energy, the environment and sustainable development have always been and will continue to be
closely linked.
Energy is an irreplaceable part of our life and it is highly correlated with the environment.
All energy derived or captured from the environment around us. Once used, it is eventually
returned to the environment as a harmless byproduct or, more often than not, as harmful
emissions or waste.
As energy usage has increased around the world, so too have the stresses this usage imposes on
the environment intensified.
Globalization has accelerated the pace of these developments and ensured that the actions of one
country are felt more acutely in many others.
But thinking from environment perspective no energy means no power generation, which
translates into less consumption of energy and fossil fuel.
Energy is the ability to do work
Energy comes in different forms:
Heat (thermal)
Light (radiant)
Motion (kinetic)
Electrical
Chemical
Nuclear energy
Gravitational
What Is the Environment?
The environment is something you are very familiar with. It's everything that makes up our
surroundings and affects our ability to live on the earth—the air we breathe the water that covers
most of the earth's surface, the plants and animals around us, and much more.
In recent years, we are causing air pollution, deforestation, acid rain, and other problems that are
dangerous both to the earth and to ourselves.
Sustainable Development
Sustainable development means, “Development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.”
In other words, sustainable development is a comprehensive
approach to promoting development in ways that do not harm the
environment or deplete natural resources so that they still will be
available in the future.

5. Energy transformation from source to services:
Energy Transformations
An energy transformation is the change of energy from one form to another. Energy
transformations occur everywhere every second of the day. There are many different forms of
energy such as electrical, thermal, nuclear, mechanical, electromagnetic, sound, and chemical.
Because the law of conservation of energy states that energy is always conserved in the universe
and simply changes from one form to another, many energy transformations are taking place
constantly.
Examples of Energy Transformations:
Electrical to Radiant (Light) when a lamp is plugged into the outlet and turns on.
Electrical to Sound A cell phone ringing
Radiant to Chemical when the sun gives energy to an apple tree so it can grow.
Chemical to Mechanical (Kinetic) that occurs when gasoline makes a car run.
Solar to Electrical to Sound Using a solar powered ipod (or radio) to play music
Electrical to Thermal when an electric heater is plugged in and turned on.
Chemical to Kinetic (Mechanical) Eating a banana for energy before jogging

6. Energy sources
Total Renewables split-up by source
Fossil
Renewable
Nuclear
Biomass heat
Solar-water
Geo-heat
Hydro
Ethanol
Biodiesel
Biomass electric
Wind
Geo-electric
Solar PV
Solar CSP
Oceanic
1. Solar Energy
Solar power harvests the energy of the sun through using collector panels to create conditions
that can then be turned into a kind of power.
2. Wind Energy
Wind power is becoming more and more common. The new innovations that are allowing wind
farms to appear are making them a more common sight.
3. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the energy that is produced from beneath the earth. It is clean, sustainable
and environment friendly. High temperatures are produced continuously inside the earth’s crust
by the slow delay of radioactive particles.
4. Hydrogen Energy

7. Hydrogen is available with water(H2O) and is most common element available on earth. Water
contains two-thirds of hydrogen and can be found in combination with other elements.
5. Tidal Energy
Tidal energy uses rise and fall of tides to convert kinetic energy of incoming and outgoing tides
into electrical energy. The generation of energy through tidal power is mostly prevalent in
coastal areas.
6. Wave Energy
Wave energy is produced from the waves that are produced in the oceans. Wave energy is
renewable, environment friendly and causes no harm to atmosphere.
7. Hydroelectric Energy
What many people are not aware of is that most of the cities and towns in the world rely on
hydropower, and have for the past century.
8. Biomass Energy
Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is commonly used throughout the world..
9. Nuclear Power
While nuclear power remains a great subject of debate as to how safe it is to use, and whether or
not it is really energy efficient when you take into account the waste it produces –
10. Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)
When most people talk about the different sources of energy they list natural gas, coal and oil as
the options – these are all considered to be just one source of energy from fossil fuels.
Sun as the source of energy;
The Sun
We consume energy in dozens of forms.
Yet virtually all of the energy we use originates in the power of the atom. Nuclear fusion
reactions energize stars, including the Sun, and the resulting sunlight has profound effects on our
planet.
Sunlight contains a surprisingly large amount of energy.

8. if all the sunlight could be captured and converted to electricity. Photovoltaic and solar
thermal technologies harvest some of that energy now and will grow in both usage and efficiency
in the future.
The Sun’s energy warms the planet’s surface, powering titanic transfers of heat and pressure in
weather patterns and ocean currents. The resulting air currents drive wind turbines. Solar energy
also evaporates water that falls as rain and builds up behind dams, where its motion is used to
generate electricity via hydropower.
When sunlight strikes a plant, some of the energy is trapped through photosynthesis and is stored
in chemical bonds as the plant grows. Of course we can recover that energy directly months or
years later by burning plant products such as wood, which breaks the bonds and releases energy
as heat and light.
More often, though, we use the stored energy in the much more concentrated forms that result
when organic matter, after millions of years of geological and chemical activity underground,
turns into coal, oil, or natural gas. Either way, we’re reclaiming the power of sunlight.
Biological processes;
Biological processes are the processes vital for a living organism to
live.Metabolism and homeostasis are examples.
biological process is modulated in its frequency, rate or extent.
examples.
 Homeostasis:
 Metabolism:
 Growth:
 Adaptation
 phototropism.
 Reproduction
 Interaction between organisms.
Photosynthesis;
Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy
into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities
This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are
synthesized from carbon dioxide and water –
The name photosynthesis, from the Greek phōs, "light", and synthesis, "putting together".

9. Food chains,
Every living thing needs energy in order to live.
Every time animals do something (run, jump) they use energy to do so.
A food chain shows how each living thing gets food, and how nutrients and energy are passed
from creature to creature.
Food chains begin with plant-life, and end with animal-life. Some animals eat plants, some
animals eat other animals.
Classification of energy sources
Energy resources are the estimated maximum capacity for energy production given all available
resources on Earth.
They can be divided by type into fossil fuel, nuclear fuel and renewable resources.
 1 Fossil fuel
o Coal
o Natural Gas
o Oil
 2 Nuclear fuel
o Nuclear energy
o Nuclear fusion
 3 Renewable resources
o Solar energy
o Wind power
o Wave and tidal power
o Geothermal
o Biomass
o Hydropower
Quality and concentration of energy sources;
Fossil fuel reserves - estimates, duration;
Theory of renewability,

10. Renewable resources;
Renewable energy resources
Renewable energy resources are those sources of energy which can be replenished and are not
depleted because of our consumption.
Renewable resources include
1. Air (wind energy)
2. Sun(solar energy)
3. Internal earth layers (geothermal energy)
4. Water (hydro electrical power)
5. Sea (tidal energy)
6. Alternative Fuels (biomass energy).
7. Nuclear fusion also falls into this category.
Typically, renewable energy resources have much lower greenhouse gas and other emissions
associated with use.
But if renewable energy resources are cleaner and offer a sustainable supply of energy, why have
we traditionally relied so heavily on non-renewable energy resources like fossil fuels?
 inexpensive
 in abundant supply
 storable
Overview of global/ India’s energy scenario.

11. UNIT II ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Ecological principles,
Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment
• Protection of species and species subdivisions will conserve genetic diversity
• Maintaining habitat is fundamental to conserving species
• Large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat
• All things are connected but the nature and strengths of those connections vary
• Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and ecosystems
• Climate influences terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems
Principle Description Associated Concepts
Adaptation The way a life system looks or behaves
is not random or accidental; rather it is
the result of changing to survive in a
dynamic environment.
Evolution, Life History Patterns,Natural
Selection, Survival, Predator-Prey
Interactions
Behavior Living systems evolve behavioral
responses to stress and disturbances to
enhance survival.
Reproduction, Predator-Prey interactions,
Dispersal, Survival (humans and other animal
species), Pest Control (exotics, nuisance
animals) Harvesting
Diversity Changes in environmental conditions
over time have led to variety within each
level of organization.
Competition, Land-Use Practices,Genetics,
Survival, Fragmentation
Emergent
Properties
When different levels of organization are
functioning together, new properties are
created that were not operational at lower
levels
Complexity, Synthesis, Teamwork,
Government
Energy Flow Energy cannot be created nor destroyed
but it can change form. Energy quality is
always degraded through transformation.
Thermodynamics, Food Chains, Tropic
Levels, Heat Exchange
Growth and
Development
As organisms and systems increase in
size, changes occur that allow survival.
Growth rate slows as maximum capacity
is met.
Succession, Reproduction, Population
Dynamics, Competition
Limits There are limits to how much stress can
be tolerated by living systems.
Sustainability, Conservation, Disease,
Natural Disaster,Agriculture, Pollution
Regulation Energy is spent if a signal is sent to
increase or decrease some function to
maintain balance.
Feedback Loops, Organismal Systems,
Cybernetics

12. Concept of ecosystems,
Concept of an Ecosystem:
The term ecosystem was coined in 1935 by the Oxford ecologist Arthur Tansley to
Encompass the interactions among biotic and abiotic components of the environment at a given
site.
The living and non-living components of an ecosystem are known as biotic and abiotic
components, respectively.
Summarized common characteristics of most of the ecosystems as follows:
1. The ecosystem is a major structural and functional unit of ecology.
2. The structure of an ecosystem is related to its species diversity in the sense that complex
ecosystem have high species diversity.
3. The function of ecosystem is related to energy flow and material cycles within and outside the
system.
4. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
Complex ecosystems needed less energy to maintain themselves.
5. Young ecosystems develop and change from less complex to more complex ecosystems,
through the process called succession.
6. Each ecosystem has its own energy budget, which cannot be exceeded.
7. Adaptation to local environmental conditions is the important feature of the biotic components
of an ecosystem, failing which they might perish.
8. The function of every ecosystem involves a series of cycles, e.g., water cycle, nitrogen cycle,
oxygen cycle, etc. these cycles are driven by energy. A continuation or existence of ecosystem
demands exchange of materials/nutrients to and from the different components.

13. Ecosystem theories,
Ecological systems theory, also called development in context or human ecology theory,
identifies five environmental systems with which an individual interacts.
This theory provides the framework from which community psychologists study the
relationships with individuals' contexts within communities and the wider society.
Ecological systems theory was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. The theory is also commonly
referred to as the ecological/systems framework.
The five systems
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory
 Microsystem:
The microsystem is the system closest to the person and the one in which they have direct
contact. Some examples would be home, school, daycare, or work. A microsystem typically
includes family, peers, or caregivers.
 Mesosystem:
Interconnections between the microsystems, Interactions between the family and teachers,
Relationship between the child’s peers and the family
 Exosystem:
Involves links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role
and the individual's immediate context.

14. For example, a parent's or child's experience at home may be influenced by the other parent's
experiences at work.
 Macrosystem:
Describes the culture in which individuals live.
Cultural contexts include developing and industrialized countries, socioeconomic status,
poverty, and ethnicity.
Members of a cultural group share a common identity, heritage, and values.
 Chronosystem:
The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as
sociohistorical circumstances.
Energy resources and their inter-linkages,
Energy flow,
The source of energy required by all living organisms is the chemical energy of their food. The
chemical energy is obtained by the conversion of the radiant energy of sun.
This energy flow is based on two important Laws of Thermodynamics which are as follows:
(1) The first law of Thermodynamics:
It states that the amount of energy in the universe is constant. It may change from one form to
another, but it can neither be created nor destroyed.
Light energy can be neither created nor destroyed as it passes through the atmosphere.
It may, however, be transformed into another type of energy, such as chemical energy or heat
energy. These forms of energy cannot be transformed into electromagnetic radiation.
(2) The second law of Thermodynamics:
It states that non-random energy (mechanical, chemical, radiant energy) cannot be changed
without some degradation into heat energy.
The change of energy from one form to another takes place in such a way that a part of energy
assumes waste form (heat energy). In this way, after transformation the capacity of energy to
perform work is decreased. Thus, energy flows from higher to lower level.

15. The impacts of human activities on energy flow in major man-made ecosystems-
Agricultural, industrial and urban ecosystems.
Various Human Activities That Affect an Ecosystem
1. Agriculture
With the ever increasing number of the world’s population, there is similarly a soaring demand
for sufficient food. The population growth rate is hence driving the world to clear forests in order
to create more room for agriculture.
 Destruction of wildlife: Forests are critical habitats for wildlife and as ecosystems
supporting the intricate relationship between living and non-living things, they have
been adversely affected by agricultural practices.
 Global warming and climate change:
This rate of deforestation affects the ecosystem by raising global temperatures and
disrupting the cycle of condensation and evaporation. Various ecosystems such as the
Polar regions are in turn affected by the rising global temperatures and changes in
atmospheric water cycle.
 Aquatic resources degradation: The injection of vast amounts of phosphorous and
nitrogen nutrients into natural soils, lands and water systems due to fertilizer use have
created far-reaching effects, altered ecosystems, and rapidly expanded aquatic dead
zones.

16. 2. Industrial development:
examples
1. Plastic production,
2. Draining streams/rivers and destruction of critical fresh water aquifer recharge areas
3. Production of Black carbon, etc
The invention of plastic has created one of the most problematic pollution problem ever
witnessed on the face of earth. Waste plastic is everywhere on earth even in the oceans. Plastics
remain in the environment for thousands of years and have long-lasting consequences on the
fragile ecosystems and regulatory cycles.
Black carbon particles are materials emitted into the atmosphere as smoke and are produced from
cooking with solid animal fuels, burning firewood, diesel car exhausts, and the burning of trees.
3. Urban Ecosystems: Emission of Carbon Dioxide and other greenhouse gases
The emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases namely methane and
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are human induced through combustion of fossil fuels and the use of
man-made products. In a bid to generate energy, the world has continued to depend on carbon-
rich fossil fuels namely gas, oil and coal.

17. UNIT III ENERGYSYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENT
Environmental effects of energy extraction, Conversion and use;
The environmental impact of the energy industry is diverse.
Consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change.
Biofuel use
Biofuel is defined as solid, liquid or gaseous fuel obtained from relatively recently lifeless or living
biological material and is different from fossil fuels, which are derived from long-dead biological
material.
Bio-diesel
High use of bio-diesel leads to land use changes including deforestation.
Firewood
Unsustainable firewood harvesting can lead to loss of biodiversity and erosion due to loss of forest
cover.
Fossil fuel use
The three fossil fuel types are coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Coal
The environmental impact of coal mining and burning is diverse.
Petroleum
The environmental impact of petroleum is often negative because it is toxic to almost all forms of life.
The possibility of climate change exists.
Gas
Natural gas is often described as the cleanest fossil fuel, producing less carbon dioxide per joule
delivered than either coal or oil and far fewer pollutants than other fossil fuels.
Reservoirs
The environmental impact of reservoirs is coming under ever increasing scrutiny as the world
demand for water and energy increases and the number and size of reservoirs increases.
Dams and the reservoirs can be used to supply drinking water, generate hydroelectric power,
increasing the water supply for irrigation, provide recreational opportunities and for flood control.
Nuclear power
The routine health risks and greenhouse gas emissions from nuclear fission power are smaller than
those associated with coal, oil and gas.
Over-heated fuels melting and releasing large quantities of fission products into the environment.

18. Wind power
The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil
fuels is relatively minor.
There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial
structures.
There are anecdotal reports of negative health effects from noise on people who live very close to
wind turbines.
Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape are significant.
Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes.
Energy
Source
Energy production Usage Environmental Impact
Oil,
Petroleum
Non renewable
· 38% of world's consumption in
2000
· Easily transported
· Large portion in transportation
industry
Refining and consuming produce
air, water, and solid waste
pollutants
Natural Gas Non renewable
· 20% of world's consumption in
2000
· Flexible for use in industries,
transportation, power generation
Produces fewer pollutants than oil
and coal, and less CO2
Coal Non renewable Primary resource for electricity
Produces CO2 and other air, water
and solid waste pollutants
Biomass:
Wood and
organic
waste
including
societal
waste
· Renewable
· In terms of timber, it is
easily harvested and
abundant in certain areas; but
it takes a long time to grow a
tree.
Low energy potential relative to
other resources
· Burning emits CO2 and other
pollutants
· Possible toxic byproducts from
societal waste
· Loss of habitat when trees
harvested, unless sustainable tree
farms
Hydro-
electric
· Renewable
· Clean resource with high
efficiency
· Influenced by climate and
geography
Low economic cost, though high
start up costs
Destruction of farmlands,
dislocation of people, loss of
habitat, alteration of stream flows
Solar Power
(photo-
voltaics)
· Renewable
· High economic cost
particularly in terms of start-
up
· Dependent on climate and
geographical location
· Need a storage system for
the energy to ensure
reliability
· Not advanced enough for
global use
· Technology is already in use for
remote applications and non-
centralized uses where it is
economically competitive with
alternatives
· Unlimited resource that is clean,
efficient, safe, and renewable
Large land use
Solar Power
- (solar
thermal)
· Renewable
· Central-thermal systems to
convert solar energy directly
to heat
· More competitive
economically than
photovoltaics
· Dependent on climate and
geographical location
· Solar energy technology not
advanced enough for global use
· Many industrial plants use solar

19. Geo-thermal
· Extracts heat from
underground masses of hot
rock.
· Technology is still
undeveloped.
· Can be geographically
dependent
· Consumption is localized
· Efficient
Disrupts natural geyser activity
Wind Power
· Renewable
· Unlimited resource that is a
very clean process, no
pollutants
· Economic cost comparable to
current technologies
· System must be designed to
operate reliably at variable rotor
speeds
· Technology not advanced enough
for global societal us
· Aesthetic issues
· Needs lots of land
· Possible impacts on birds and their
migration patterns
· Some noise pollution
Nuclear
Fission
· Non renewable resource U-
235 (uranium)
· Highly technological
infrastructure necessary for
safe operation
· Production of nuclear energy
has a high cost due in part to
regulations
· High water usage for cooling
Currently accounts for 10-12% of
the world's electricity
· Byproduct is highly radioactive
and highly toxic
· Produces radioactive wastes that
have a long lifetime
· Disposal solution complex
technically and politically
· Safety issues in terms of operating
a facility with the potential to
release radiation to the atmosphere
· Public perception problem in terms
of radiation, etc.
Sources of pollution from energy technologies (both renewable and non renewable);
Energy generation is the number one cause of air pollution and the leading cause of global
warming emissions.
Coal
Coal produces more pollution than any other energy source.
Burning coal leads to soot, smog, acid rain, global warming, and carbon emissions. It also
generates a great deal of waste, including sludge, toxic chemicals, and heat.
Coal is one of three types of fossil fuel energy — along with natural gas and oil — but it won’t
last forever.
Natural Gas
Like coal, natural gas is a fossil fuel that contributes to air pollution and has environmental and
health risks.
Drilling and extracting natural gas and transporting it in pipelines results in the leakage of
methane, Land disturbance for gas and oil drilling also harms ecosystems through erosion and
pollutants that leak into nearby streams.

20. There are also well-documented cases of groundwater near gas wells becoming contaminated
with gases and fracking fluids.
Nuclear
Nuclear energy is one of the biggest sources of renewable energy in the world, although it’s not
entirely clean.
Nuclear energy is emission-free and saves about 2.4 billion tons of carbon emissions per year
that would otherwise result from coal, but it results in radioactive, high-level waste (HLW).
Primary and secondary pollutants;
Primary Pollutant:
1. They are pollutants which are passed into environment in the form they are produced.
2. They belong to various categories like particulate, aerosol, reduced, oxidized.
3. They are less toxic.
4. They do not show synergism.
5. Primary pollutants persist in the form they are released in the environment.
Secondary Pollutants:
1. The pollutants develop as a result of interaction of primary pollutants and environmental
constituents.
2. They are generally oxidizing.
3. They are more toxic.
4. Secondary pollutants show synergism.
5. They are modified products
Consequence of pollution and population growth;
Effects of Pollution
 Impure air can kill many organisms including human beings.
 Pollution can cause heart disease, throat inflammation, respiratory disease, congestion,
and chest pain,.
 Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution can cause hearing loss,
high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance.
 Mercury contamination can cause developmental defects in children and neurologic
problem.
 Older people are more susceptible to air pollution.
 Pollution caused due to lead and other heavy metals cause neurological problems.
 Chemical and radioactive contamination can cause cancer and birth defects.

21. Effects of Population Growth on our Environment!
One of the factors responsible for environment degradation is population growth or population
density.
1. Generation of Waste:
Due to his destructive activities, man has dumped more and more waste in environment.
Further, waste leads to air and water pollution.
2. Threat to Biodiversity:
Due to his destructive activities, man has extracted more and more minerals from the earth.
Animals have been hunted and plants have disappeared.
3. Strain on Forests:
Man has established new housing colonies. National highways and hydropower projects have
been built and forests have been wiped out.
4. Urbanization:
Rapid growth of population has led to urbanization which has adversely affected environment.
but it brings with if environmental damages through industrial growth, emissions and wastes.
5. Industrialization:
The establishment of such industries as fertilizers, iron and steel, chemicals and refineries have
led to land, air and water pollution.
6. Land Degradation:
Intensive farming and excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides have led to over-exploitation of
land and water resources. These have led to land degradation in the form of soil erosion, water
logging and salination.
7. Transport Development:
The automobiles release huge quantities of poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides and hydrocarbons.

22. 8. Climatic Change:
Climatic changes are irregular due to green house gases.
The thin skin of air that surrounds the planet is being affected by human activities as never
before.
9. Productivity:
Dirty water, inadequate sanitation, air pollution and land degradation cause serious diseases on
an enormous scale in developing countries like India.
10. Technology:
Environmental pollution is caused by old technology which releases gases and pollutants causing
chemical and industrial pressure on environment.
Air, water, soil, thermal, noise pollution –cause and effect;
Air Pollution
Air pollution is one such form that refers to the contamination of the air, irrespective of indoors
or outside. A physical, biological or chemical alteration to the air in the atmosphere can be
termed as pollution.
Causes of Air pollution
1. Burning of Fossil Fuels:
2. Agricultural activities:
3. Exhaust from factories and industries:
4. Mining operations:
5. Indoor air pollution:
Effects of Air pollution
1. Respiratory and heart problems:
2. Global warming:
3. Acid Rain:
4. Eutrophication:
5. Effect on Wildlife:

23. 6. Depletion of Ozone layer:
Solutions for Air Pollution
1. Use public mode of transportation:
2. Conserve energy:
3. Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle:
4. Emphasis on clean energy resources:
5. Use energy efficient devices
Water Pollution
Water they say is life, and indeed they were right. With about 70% of the earth’s cover being
water, it undeniably becomes one of our greatest resources.
Causes of Water Pollution
1. Industrial waste:
2. Sewage and waste water:
3. Mining activities:
4. Marine dumping:
5. Accidental Oil leakage:
6. Burning of fossil fuels
7. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides:
8. Leakage from sewer lines:
9. Global warming:
10. Radioactive waste:
11. Urban development:
12. Leakage from the landfills:
13. Animal waste:
14. Underground storage leakage:

24. Soil Pollution
With the rise of concrete buildings and roads, one part of the Earth that we rarely see is the soil.
Main Causes of Soil Pollution
1. Industrial Activity:
2. Agricultural Activities
3. Waste Disposal
4. Accidental Oil Spills:
5. Acid Rain
Effects of Soil Pollution
1. Effect on Health of Humans:
2. Effect on Growth of Plants:
3. Decreased Soil Fertility:
4. Toxic Dust
5. Changes in Soil Structure:
Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution is defined as sudden increase or decrease in temperature of a natural body of
water which may be ocean, lake, river or pond by human influence.
Causes of Thermal Pollution
1. Water as Cooling Agent in Power, Manufacturing and Industrial plants:
2. Soil Erosion:
3. Deforestation:
4. Runoff from Paved Surfaces:
5. Natural Causes:
Effects of Thermal Pollution
1. Decrease in DO (Dissolved Oxygen) Levels:

25. 2. Increase in Toxins:
3. Loss of Biodiversity:
4. Ecological Impact:
5. Affects Reproductive Systems:
6. Increases Metabolic Rate
7. Migration:
Noise Pollution
By definition, noise pollution takes place when there is either excessive amount of noise or an
unpleasant sound that causes temporary disruption in the natural balance.
Causes of Noise Pollution
1. Industrialization:
2. Poor Urban Planning:
3. Social Events:
4. Transportation:
5. Construction Activities:
6. Household Chores
Effects of Noise Pollution
1. Hearing Problems:
2. Health Issues:
3. Sleeping Disorders:
4. Cardiovascular Issues:
5. Trouble Communicating:
6. Effect on Wildlife:

26. Pollution control methods,
The control of the emission of various particulates into the environment so as to bring down
the level of the pollution is termed as pollution control.
The main steps that can be followed in this regard include recycling and reusing the products
that can be used a few times so that the waste produced from them does not deplete the
environment.
Also the waste water that is to be thrown into the water bodies from the industries should be
treated first to bring down its hazardous nature which poses a threat to the aquatic natural
species.
The amount of raw material that is to be used should be used in an adequate quantity so that it
results in low generation of the waste amount which is mixed with the environmental agents
later.
Proper noise and smoke precipitators should be used to bring down the amount of lethal
smoke and noise produced to help protect the environment
Different techniques for controlling pollutants are discussed below:
Prevention and Control of air Pollution –
Following practices also help in controlling air pollution.
(i) Use of better designed equipment and smokeless fuels, hearths in industries and at home.
(ii) Automobiles should be properly maintained and adhere to recent emission-control standards.
(iii) More trees should be planted along road side and houses.
(iv)Renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar energy, ocean currents, should fulfill energy
needs. (v) Tall chimneys should be installed for vertical dispersion of pollutants.
1. Avoid using chemical pesticides or fertilizers in your yard and garden.
2. Compost your yard waste instead of burning it.
3. Avoid using a wood stove or fireplace to heat your home
4. Be energy efficient.
5. Plant trees and encourage other to plant trees as well.
6. Try to stop smoking; at home, at office or at outside.
Prevention and Control of Water Pollution –
1. Sewage should be treated before it is discharged into the river or ocean.
2. Waste food material, paper, decaying vegetables and plastics should not be thrown into open
drains. 3. Effluents from distilleries, and solid wastes containing organic matter should be sent to
biogas plants for generation of energy.
4. Oil slicks should be skimmed off from the surface with suction device. Sawdust may be spread
over oil slicks to absorb the oil components.

27. Prevention and control of soil erosion –
We can check soil erosion by adopting the following additional practices:
1. Intensive cropping and use of proper drainage canals.
2. Terracing on the sloping fields. This retards the speed of the flowing water.
3. Planting trees and sowing grasses.
4. Extensive aforestation practices to be carried out.
Prevention and control of Noise pollution –
Apart, redesigning industrial equipment, shock mounting assemblies and physical barriers in the
workplace are also for reduction and exposure of unwanted industrial noise.
High way noise pollution can be mitigated by constructing noise barriers.
Creation of greenbelt in the space between the residences and highways also reduces the noise
nuisance.
Following practices help in protecting our environment.
1. Rotation of crops.
2. Judicious use of fertilisers, intensive cropping, proper drainage and irrigation.
3. Treatment of sewage, so that it does not pollute the rivers and other water bodies.
4. Composting organic solid waste for use as manure.
5. Planting trees in place of those removed for various purposes.
6. National parks and conservation forests should be established by the government.
7. Harvesting of rain water.
Some action points to protect or improve the environment –
(i) Dispose the waste after separating them into biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste
material. (ii) Start a compost heap or use a compost bin.
(iii) Avoid unnecessary or wasteful packaging of products.
(iv) Reuse carry bags.
(v) Plant trees. They will help to absorb excess carbon dioxide.
(vi) Observe World Environment Day on 5th June.
(vii) Never put any left over chemicals, used oils down the drain, toilet or dump them on the
ground or in water or burn them in the garden
(viii) Don’t burn any waste, especially plastics, for the smoke may contain polluting gases.
(ix) Use unleaded petrol and alternate sources of energy, and keep the engine properly tuned and
serviced and the tyres inflated to the right pressure, so that vehicle runs efficiently.
(x) Avoid fast starts and sudden braking of automobiles.
(xi) Walk or cycle where it is safe to do so – walking is free; cycling can help to keep you fit.
(xii) Use public transport wherever you can, or form a car pool for everyday travel.
(xiii) Send your waste oil, old batteries and used tyres to a garage for recycling or safe disposal;

28. Sources and impacts;
Environmental laws on pollution control.
Environmental law is a complex group of laws and regulations which operate to regulate the
interaction of human life to the natural environment.
Environmental laws consist of treaties, conventions, statutes and regulations. Often
environmental law falls under common law.
The purpose of environmental law is to protect and preserve the environment.
There are two main subjects of environmental laws, control of pollution, and the conservation
and management of land.
Both sections of environmental law protect land, air, water, and soil.
Environmental laws which are commonly broke include: littering, dumping hazardous materials
into bodies of water, starting forest fires, and polluting watershed property.
Kyoto Protocol;
The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that global warming is
occurring and it is extremely likely that human-made CO2 emissions have predominantly caused
it.
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997 and entered into force
on February 16, 2005. There are currently 192 parties (Canada withdrew effective December
2012) to the Protocol.
The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by
reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to
"a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system"
The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities:
it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they
are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

29. Conference of Parties (COP);
The COP is the supreme decision-making body of the Convention.
All States that are Parties to the Convention are represented at the COP, at which they review
the implementation of the Convention and any other legal instruments that the COP adopts and
take decisions necessary to promote the effective implementation of the Convention, including
institutional and administrative arrangements
A key task for the COP is to review the national communications and emission inventories
submitted by Parties. Based on this information, the COP assesses the effects of the measures
taken by Parties and the progress made in achieving the ultimate objective of the Convention.
The COP meets every year, unless the Parties decide otherwise. The first COP meeting was held
in Berlin, Germany in March, 1995.
Clean Development Mechanism,
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol,
Allows a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the
Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries.
Such projects can earn saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, each equivalent to
one tonne of CO2, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets.
For example, a rural electrification project using solar panels or the installation of more
energy-efficient boilers.
The mechanism stimulates sustainable development and emission reductions, while giving
industrialized countries some flexibility in how they meet their emission reduction or
limitation targets.
A CDM project must provide emission reductions that are additional to what would otherwise
have occurred. The projects must qualify through a rigorous and public registration and
issuance process. Approval is given by the Designated National Authorities. Public funding
for CDM project activities must not result in the diversion of official development assistance.
The mechanism is overseen by the CDM Executive Board, answerable ultimately to the
countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
Operational since the beginning of 2006, the mechanism has already registered more than
1,650 projects and is anticipated to produce CERs amounting to more than 2.9 billion tonnes
of CO2 equivalent in the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, 2008–2012.

30. Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation.
Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation,
sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing
countries
(REDD+) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) since 2005,
with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse
gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries.
In the last two decades, various studies estimate that land use change, including deforestation
and degradation, Accounts for 12-29% of global greenhouse gas emissions.
For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential
to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC.
UNIT IV GREEN INNOVATION & SUSTAINABILITY
Criteria for choosing appropriate green energy technologies,
Criteria
Technical Efficiency - energy efficiency,primaryenergyratio,safety,reliability,maturity,others
Economic - Investmentcost,operationandmaintenance cost,fuel cost,electriccost,net
Presentvalue,paybackperiod,service life,equivalentannual cost,others
Environmental - NOx emission,CO2emission,COemission,SO2emission,particlesemission,non-
Methane volatile organiccompounds,landuse,noise,others
Social - Social acceptability,jobcreation,social benefits,others
Emerging trends process/product innovation-,
Technological / environmental leap-frogging;
"Leapfrogging is the notion that areas which have poorly-developed technology or economic
bases can move themselves forward rapidly through the adoption of modern systems without
going through intermediary steps."
The concept of leapfrogging is used in many different domains of economics and business, and
was originally developed in the field of industrial organization and economic growth.
The main idea beyond the concept of leapfrogging is that small and incremental innovations lead
the dominant firm to stay ahead. However, sometimes, radical innovations will permit to new

31. firms to leapfrog the ancient and dominant firm. The phenomenon can occur to firms but also to
leadership of countries, or cities.
Eco/green technologies for addressing the problems of Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture
and Biodiversity
Highimplementingcosts.
• Lack of information.
• Noknownalternative chemical orrawmaterial inputs
• Noknownalternative processtechnology
• Uncertaintyaboutperformance impacts
• Lack of humanresourcesandskills.
Eco-restoration
Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem
that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.
Ecological restoration is a means of sustaining the diversity of life on Earth and
re-establishing an ecologically healthy relationship between nature and culture.
Ecological restoration can and should be a fundamental component of
conservation and sustainable development programs throughout the world by
virtue of its inherent capacity to provide people with the opportunity to not only
repair ecological damage, but also improve the human condition.
Restoration ecology is a relatively new science that provides the knowledge and
helps guide the development of the tools and technology needed to return an
ecosystem to health.
For restoration to be successful, it is essential to have understanding of the
dynamics of the ecosystem being restored, and to ensure the genetic integrity of
its plants by using locally propagated species.
phytoremediation,

32. Phytoremediation refers to the technologies that use living plants to clean up soil,
air, and water contaminated with hazardous chemicals.
Phytoremediation is a cost-effective plant-based approachof remediation that takes
advantage of the ability of plants to concentrate elements and compounds fromthe
environment and to metabolize various molecules in their tissues.
It refers to the natural ability of certain plants called hyperaccumulators to
bioaccumulate, degrade, or render harmless contaminants in soils, water, or air.
Toxic heavy metals and organic pollutants are the major targets for
phytoremediation.
Phytoremediation may be applied wherever the soil or static water environment has
become polluted or is suffering ongoing chronic pollution.
Examples where phytoremediation has been used successfully include the
restoration of abandoned metal mine workings, and sites where polychlorinated
biphenyls have been dumped during manufacture and mitigation of ongoing coal
mine discharges reducing the impact of contaminants in soils, water, or air.
Contaminants such as metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives, and crude oil and its
derivatives, have been mitigated in phytoremediation projects worldwide.
Many plants suchas mustard plants, alpine pennycress, hemp, and pigweed have
proven to be successfulat hyperaccumulating contaminants at toxic waste sites.

33. Ecological sanitation,
Ecological sanitation(Ecosan) isaconceptthat treatsvarioustypesof waste generatedbyusas a
resource whichcan be safely collected,treatedandreusedtopreventpollutionof waterbodiesandthe
environment.
Currently,varioustypesof Ecosanpracticessuchas promotionof Ecosan toilets,compostpits,bio-gas
plants,reed-bedsfortreatmentof waste water,etc.,are being takenuptotreat waste generatedbyus
ina ecologicallysoundmanner.
Renewable energy technologies,
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES
1. Wind energy
2. Solar energy
3. Bio energy
4. Hydro
5. Geothermal
Industrial ecology,
Industrial Ecology is the study of industrial systems aimed at identifying and implementing
strategies that reduce their environmental impact. Industries, such as manufacturing and energy
plants, extract raw materials and natural resources from the earth and transform them into
products and services that meet the demands of the population.
Industrial ecology aims to reduce environmental stress caused by industry whilst encouraging
innovation, resource efficiency and sustained growth.
The principles of industrial ecology are:
 Create industrial ecosystems - close the loop; view waste as a resource; create
partnerships with other industries to trade by-products which are used as inputs to other
processes.
 Balance industrial inputs and outputs to natural levels - manage the environmental-
industrial interface; increase knowledge of ecosystem behaviour, recovery time and
capacity; increase knowledge of how and when industry can interact with natural
ecosystems and the limitations.
 Dematerialisation of industrial output - use less virgin materials and energy by becoming
more resource efficient; reuse materials or substituting more environmentally friendly
materials; do more with less.
 Improve the efficiency of industrial processes - redesign products, processes, equipment;
reuse materials to conserve resources.

34.  Energy use - incorporate energy supply within the industrial ecology; use alternative
sources of energy that have less or no impact upon the environment.
 Align policies with the industrial ecology concept - incorporate environment and
economics into organisational, national and international policies; internalize the
externalities; use economic instruments to encourage a move towards industrial ecology;
use a more appropriate discount rate; use a more comprehensive index to measure a
nation's wealth rather than GNP.
The benefits of industrial ecology include: cost savings (materials purchasing, licensing fees,
waste disposal fees, etc); improved environmental protection; income generation through selling
waste or by products; enhanced corporate image; improved relations with other industries and
organisations and market advantages.
Agro ecology
Agro ecology is the study of ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems.
Bringing ecological principles to bear in agro ecosystems can suggest novel management
approaches that would not otherwise be considered.
The term is often used imprecisely and may refer to "a science, a movement, [or] a practice".
The field of agro ecology is not associated with any one particular method of farming,
Whether it be organic, integrated, or conventional; intensive or extensive
the spread of agroecological farming by promoting:

35.  Farmer experimentation to improve soil management, seeds, water management and
farming systems.
 Generating early success to create enthusiasm in communities.
 Maximizing the use of local resources and knowledge, but integrating useful new
practices as well.
 Focusing on a limited number of technologies and practices so that farmers can manage
the process of change. To create a self-spreading effect, it is better to teach 100 farmers
a few practices that work, rather than a few farmers 100 practices that work.
 Farmer-to-farmer sharing of successful practices.
 Diversifying farming systems.
 Reaching a critical mass of adopters in communities, leading to a multiplier affect.
 Strengthening local organizations to manage the process.
other appropriate green technologies.
UNIT V GREEN ENERGYAND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The inseparable linkages of life supporting systems,
Biodiversity and ecosystem services and their implications for sustainable development;
Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services are defined as “the benefits provided by ecosystems to humans”.
Many key ecosystem services provided by biodiversity, such as nutrient cycling, carbon
sequestration, pest regulation and pollination, sustain agricultural productivity.
Ecosystem services can be:
 Supporting (e.g. soil formation, nutrient cycling, primary production)

36.  Provisioning (e.g. food, fresh water, fuelwood, fiber, biochemicals, genetic resources)
 Regulating (e.g. climate regulation, disease regulation, water regulation, water
purification, pollination)
 Cultural (e.g. spiritual and religious, recreation and ecotourism, aesthetic, inspirational,
educational, sense of place, cultural heritage).
Global warming;
Global warming is the current increase in temperature of the Earth's surface (both land and
water) as well as it's atmosphere.
Greenhouse gas emissions, impacts, mitigation and adaptation;
The primary sources of greenhouse gas emissions are:
 Electricity production
 Transportation
 Industry
 Commercial and Residential
 Agriculture
 Land Use and Forestry
Greenhouse gases are made out of:
 water vapor
 carbon dioxide
 methane
 nitrous oxide
 ozone
 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Effects of increased greenhouse gas emissions
Increases in the different greenhouse gases have other effects apart from global warming
including ocean acidification, smog pollution, ozone depletion as well as changes to plant growth
and nutrition levels.
1 Global warming
Global warming is harming the environment in several ways including:
Desertification
Increased melting of snow and ice

37. Sea level rise
Stronger storms and extreme events
2 Ocean Acidification
3 Changes to plant growth and nutrition levels
4 Smog and ozone pollution
5 Ozone layer depletion
 Mitigation Involves attempts to slow the process of global climate change, usually by lowering
the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
Planting trees that absorb CO2 from the air and store it is an example of one such strategy.
Reduction of the amount of greenhouse gases put into the atmosphere is usually accomplished
through reducing energy use and switching to energy sources that don’t release greenhouse
gases.
Energy conservation methods include increasing the fuel efficiency of vehicles, making
individual lifestyle changes, and changing business practices. Technologies such as hydrogen
fuel cells, solar power, tidal energy, geothermal power, and wind power, along with the use of
carbon sinks, carbon credits, and taxation, are aimed at countering greenhouse gas emissions
more directly.
 Adaptation Involves developing ways to protect people and places by reducing their
vulnerability to climate impacts.
For example, to protect against sea level rise and increased flooding, communities might build
seawalls or relocate buildings to higher ground.
Future energy Systems- clean/green energy technologies;
1. Renewableenergyinproducts
2. Energy producingbuildings
3. CleanLight
4. Smart DC electricitygrid
5. Offshore renewable energy
6. ElectricTransport
7.The Car as PowerPlant
International agreements/conventions on energy and sustainability –

38. International conventions, agreements and bans have been adopted by governments around the
world in the following areas:
2. Climate change
3. Bans on pharmaceuticals, pesticides/herbicides, ozone depleting substances and
persistent organic pollutants
4. Pollution and hazardous materials
5. Wildlife, biodiversity and natural heritage
6. Labor and human rights
International conventions and agreements on climate change:
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992. Encourages the stabilization of
greenhouse gas (GHGs) concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1997. Sets binding reduction
targets for 39 industrialized countries and the European Union for four greenhouse gases (carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and sulphur hexafluoride); requires other countries to commit to
reducing emissions by an average of 5% of their 1990 baseline levels over a five-year period
(2008 to 2012).
International bans on pharmaceuticals, pesticides/herbicides, ozone depleting substances and
persistent organic pollutants:
UN Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, 1996 and 1998. Controls the use and trade of
pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely restricted.
UN Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985. Establishes a framework for
international efforts to protect the ozone layer by controlling human activities found to cause
stratospheric ozone depletion through the use of chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs).
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987. Phases out the production
and use of substances which deplete the ozone layer by requiring parties to commit to take action
to reduce and eliminate emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride,
methyl chloroform, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs) and
methyl bromide.
UN Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001. Eliminates or reduces the
release of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which can be pesticides, industrial chemicals or
by-products that remain intact for exceptionally long periods of time.
International conventions and agreements on pollution and hazardous materials:

39. International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 1973 and 1978.
Requires the minimization of accidental discharges of oil, noxious liquid, substances carried in
bulk, harmful substances carried in packaged form, sewage, and garbage from ships to the
marine environment.
UN Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and
Their Disposal, 1989. Seeks to minimize hazardous waste generation and regulates the transport
and disposal of hazardous substances.
African Union Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of
Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes Within Africa, 1991. Reduces
the generation of hazardous wastes and prohibits the import of any hazardous (including
radioactive) waste.
London Protocol to the Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1996. Prohibits
all dumping in the marine environment except for acceptable wastes such as dredged material,
sewage sludge, fish wastes, vessels and platforms, inert, inorganic geological material (such as
mining wastes), organic material of natural origin, bulky items (comprising iron, steel and
concrete), and carbon dioxide streams from carbon dioxide capture processes for sequestration.
International conventions and agreements on wildlife, biodiversity and natural heritage:
African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1968. Requires
parties to adopt measures necessary to ensure conservation, utilization and development of soil,
water, flora and fauna in accordance with scientific principles; requires parties to use resources
wisely, manage populations and habitats, control hunting and fishing, and prohibit the use of
poisons, explosives and automatic weapons in hunting.
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar
Convention), 1971. Promotes the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands through
local and national actions and international cooperation.
UN Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972.
Protects unique natural and cultural areas on the World Heritage List of sites of exceptional
cultural or natural value.
IUCN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES), 1973. Ensures that international trade of flora and fauna does not threaten the survival
of more than 33,000 listed species of animals and plants.
UN Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention),
1979. Requires parties to protect terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species threatened with
extinction by conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to
migration, and controlling other endangering factors.

40. UN Convention on Biological Diversity (Biodiversity Convention), 1992. Promotes the
conservation of biological diversity; sustainable use of the components of biological diversity;
and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.
International conventions and agreements on labor and human rights:
UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948. Promotes human rights, social progress,
better standards of life, and larger freedom for all people.
UN Convention Concerning Forced or Compulsory Labor, 1957. Eliminates all forms of forced
or compulsory labor by requiring parties to commit to taking measures to abolish forced or
compulsory labor.
UN Convention Concerning Discrimination in Respect of Employment and Occupation, 1958.
Eliminates all forms of discrimination associated with employment, including hiring practices
and equal treatment in the workplace.
International Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination, 1965.
Promotes the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination and encourages understanding
among all races.
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, 1979. Commits
parties to end discrimination against women by incorporating gender equality into domestic
legislation, repealing all discriminatory provisions in laws, and enacting new provisions to guard
against discrimination against women.
African Charter of Human and Peoples’ Rights, 1981. Promotes and protects human rights and
basic freedoms in the African continent.
UN Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (C169),
1989. Recognizes the human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous peoples and
encourages the involvement of indigenous and tribal peoples and their traditional organizations
in the planning and implementation of development projects.
ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, 1998. Commits parties to
respect and promote principles and rights including freedom of association and recognition of the
right to collective bargaining, elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labor, abolition of
child labor, and elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation.
UN Convention Concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the
Worst Forms of Child Labor, 1999. Prohibits and eliminates the worst forms of child labor,
including all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, commercial sexual exploitation of
children, and the use or procurement of a child by others for illegal activities such as for
trafficking or production of drugs.

41. UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 2007. Sets standards for the treatment of
indigenous peoples to eliminate human rights violations against indigenous people and assist
them in combating discrimination and marginalization.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC).
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is
an international environmental treaty adopted on 9 May 1992 and opened for signature at
the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992.
It then entered into force on 21 March 1994, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it.
The UNFCCC objective is to "stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system".
The framework sets non binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and
contains no enforcement mechanisms. Instead, the framework outlines how specific international
treaties (called "protocols" or "Agreements") may be negotiated to specify further action towards
the objective of the UNFCCC.
Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:
Annex I countries – industrialized countries and economies in transition
There are 41 Annex I countries
Annex II countries – developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries
There are 23 Annex II countries
Non Annex I countries - Developing countries.
Annex I countries which have ratified the Protocol have committed to reduce their emission
levels of greenhouse gasses to targets that are mainly set below their 1990 levels.
Annex II countries are a sub-group of the Annex I countries. They comprise the OECD
members, excluding those that were economies in transition in 1992.