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CELL CYCLE
CELL CYCLE
Described by Howard and Pele in 1953
Cell Cycle is defined as “The sequence of
events involving growth and division, a cell
undergoes from the time of its formation by
division of parent cell to its own division into
daughter cells .”
Five Phases of the Cell Cycle
 Interphase
It is divided into three phases-:
G1 - primary growth phase
S – synthesis; DNA replicated
G2 - secondary growth phase
collectively these 3 stages are
called interphase
M - Mitosis
C – Cytokinesis 3
PHASES OF CELL CYCLE
CONCEPT OF G0 PHASE-
 Nonproliferative cells in eukaryotes generally enter
the quiescent G0 state from G1 and remain quiescent
for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely , e.g.
neurons
Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA
damage or degradation that would make a cell's
progeny nonviable.
 Some cells enter the G0 phase for a short period of
time e.g., liver and kidney cells.
Many cells do not enter G0 and continue to divide
throughout an organism's life, e.g. epithelial cells
Cell Cycle
6
Interphase
(a) G1 Stage
1st growth stage after cell
division
Cells mature by making more
cytoplasm & organelles
Cell carries on its normal
metabolic activities
7
Interphase –> S Stage
Synthesis stage
DNA is copied or replicated
8
Two identical
copies of
DNA
Original DNA
Interphase – G2 Stage
2nd Growth Stage
Occurs after DNA has been copied
All cell structures needed for
division are made (e.g. centrioles)
Both organelles & proteins are
synthesized
9
Interphase
Animal Cell Plant Cell
Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm
What Happens in Interphase G2………
11
What the cell looks like
Animal Cell
What’s occurring
Cell Cycle
12
ughter Cells
DNA Copied
Cells
Mature Cells prepare for Division
Cell Divides into Identical cells
Chromosomes
 All eukaryotic cells store genetic information
in chromosomes.
 Human cells have 46 chromosomes.
 23 nearly-identical pairs
Structure of Chromosomes
 Chromosomes are composed of a complex of DNA
and protein called chromatin that condenses
during cell division
 DNA exists as a single, long, double-stranded fiber
extending chromosome’s entire length.
 Each unduplicated chromosome contains one DNA
molecule, which may be several inches long
 After every 200 nucleotide pairs, the DNA wraps twice around a
group of 8 histone proteins to form a nucleosome.
 Higher order coiling and supercoiling also helps in condensing
and packaging the chromatin inside the nucleus.
Structure of Chromosomes
Chromosomes
 Non-homologous chromosomes
 Look different
 Control different traits
 Sex chromosomes
 Are distinct from each other in their
characteristics
 Are represented as X andY
 Determine the sex of the individual, XX being
female, XY being male
 In a diploid cell, the chromosomes occur in pairs.
The 2 members of each pair are called
homologous chromosomes or homologues.
Chromosomes
 A diploid cell has two sets of each of its chromosomes
 In human being 46 chromosomes are present(2n = 46)
 In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred all the chromosomes are
duplicated and thus each chromosome consists of two identical sister
chromatids
Maternal set of
chromosomes
Paternal set of
chromosomes
2n = 6
Two sister chromatids
of one replicated
chromosome
Two nonsister
chromatids in
a homologous pair
Pair of homologous
chromosomes
(one from each set)
Centromere
Homologues Chromosomes
 Homologous chromosomes:
• Look the same
• Control the same traits
• May code for different forms of each trait
• Independent origin - each one was inherited from a
different parent
Chromosome Duplication
0.5 µm
Chromosome
duplication
(including DNA
synthesis)
Centromere
Separation
of sister
chromatids
Sister
chromatids
Centrometers
Sister chromatids
A eukaryotic cell has multiple
chromosomes, one of which is
represented here. Before
duplication, each chromosome
has a single DNA molecule.
Once duplicated, a chromosome
consists of two sister chromatids
connected at the centromere. Each
chromatid contains a copy of the
DNA molecule.
Mechanical processes separate
the sister chromatids into two
chromosomes and distribute
them to two daughter cells.
 In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense
 Because of duplication, each condensed chromosome consists
of 2 identical chromatids joined by a centromere.
 Each duplicated chromosome contains 2 identical DNA
molecules (unless a mutation occurred), one in each chromatid:
Chromosome Duplication
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Two unduplicated
chromosomes
Centromere
Sister
chromatids
Sister
chromatids
Duplication
Non-sister
chromatids
Two duplicated chromosomes
Structure of Chromosomes
 The centromere is a constricted region of the chromosome containing a
specific DNA sequence, to which is bound 2 discs of protein called
kinetochores.
 Kinetochores serve as points of attachment for microtubules that move the
chromosomes during cell division:
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Metaphase chromosome
Kinetochore
Kinetochore
microtubules
Centromere
region of
chromosome
Sister Chromatids
Structure of Chromosomes
 Diploid - A cell possessing two copies of each chromosome
(human body cells).
 Homologous chromosomes are made up of sister chromatids
joined at the centromere.
 Haploid - A cell possessing a single copy of each chromosome
(human sex cells).
 KARYOTYPE it is a
chromosome complement
of a cell or organism
depicting the number , size
and form of the
chromosome as seen in
metaphase of mitosis.
 Chromosomes are
assembled as homologous
pairs in decreasing order of
length.
CELL DIVISION
 Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother
cell) dividing into two daughter cells.This leads to
growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of
tissue) and to procreation (vegetative
reproduction) in unicellular organisms.
 Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission.
 Eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of
nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by
division of the cell, called cytokinesis.
 A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to
produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells
serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing
 DNA replication, or the process of duplicating
a cell's genome, is required every time a cell
divides. Replication, like all cellular activities,
requires specialized proteins for carrying out
the job.
Protein synthesis
 Cells are capable of synthesizing new
proteins, which are essential for the
modulation and maintenance of cellular
activities.
 This process involves the formation of new
protein molecules from amino acid building
blocks based on information encoded in
DNA/RNA.
 Protein synthesis generally consists of two
major steps: transcription and translation.
Transcription
 Process by which genetic information encoded in DNA is
copied onto messenger RNA
 Occurs in the nucleus
 DNA  mRNA
Translation
 Process by which information encoded in mRNA is used
to assemble a protein at a ribosome
 Occurs on a Ribosome
 mRNA  protein
CELL DIVISION OCCURS IN 3 WAYS-
AMITOSIS
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
AMITOSIS
 Amitosis is very simple, it occurs without the
formation of spindle and appearance of
chromosome
 Nuclear envelope remains intact.
 E.g – Macromolecules of ciliates such as
paramecium.
 In each case division of nucleus called
KARYOGENESIS, occurs before the division of
cytoplasm termed CYTOKINESIS
MITOSIS
 MITOSIS was 1ST described by GERMAN BIOLOGIST
EDUARD STRASBURGER in plant cell in1875
and later by another GERMAN BIOLOGISTWALTHER
FLEMMING in animal cell 1879.
 TERMED MITOSIS byWALTHER FLEMMING in 1882.
DEFINITION
 It is defined as" the division of a parent cell into 2
identical daughter cells each with a nucleus having
the same amount of DNA, the same number and
kind of chromosomes and same hereditary
instructions as parent cell.”
 Hence also known as EQUATIONAL DIVISION.
INTERPHASE
 Period between two successive division.
 Greater part of interphase is called G1 stage.
 S Stage: - Synthesis of DNA takes place.
 G2: - Protein synthesis takes placed required
for cell division.
MECHANISM OF MITOSIS
 It involve a series of changes in nucleus as
well as cytoplasm
Therefore often called as indirect division
Two main events in mitosis -:
 Karyokinesis
 Cytokinesis
Karyokinesis may be divided into four stages 
 PROPHASE
 METAPHASE
 ANAPHASE
 TELOPHASE
2 cell & cell cycle
STAGES OF MITOSIS
EARLY PROPHASE
 Early in the prophase stage the chromatin fibers shorten into
chromosomes
 Each prophase chromosome consists of a pair of identical double-
stranded chromatids.
LATE PROPHASE
 Nucleolus disappears, the nuclear envelope breaks down,
and the two centrosomes begin to form the mitotic spindle
(which is an assembly of microtubules).
 As the microtubules extend in length between the
centrosomes, the centrosomes are pushed to opposite "poles"
(extremes) of the cell.
 Eventually, the spindle extends between two opposite poles
of the cell.
The Spindle
37
Review of Prophase
38
What the cell looks like
METAPHASE
 CHROMOSOME CONDENSATIONCONTINUES INTO
METAPHASE.
 MOST STRIKING FEATURE-CHROMOSOMES BECOME
ALIGNEDWITHTHERECENTOMERES IN A SINGLE
TRANSVERSE PLANE.
 THIS PLANE LIES PERPENDICULARTOTHE LONG AXIS
OF SPINDLE AND IS KNOWN AS EQUTORIAL PLATE.
 OFTEN KNOWN AS METAPHASE PLATE.
Metaphase
40
Poles
Equator of Cell
ANAPHASE
 The centromeres split separating the two members of
each chromatid pair - which then move to the
opposite poles of the cell.
 When they are separated , the chromatids are
now called as chromosomes.
 As the chromosomes are pulled by the microtubules
during anaphase, they appear to be "V"-shaped
because the centromeres lead the way, dragging the
trailing arms of the chromosomes towards the poles
 EARLY ANAPHASE
LATE ANAPHASE
TELOPHASE
Telophase begins after the chromosomal movement stops.
 The identical sets of chromosomes - which are by this stage at
opposite poles of the cell, uncoil and revert to the long, thin,
thread-like chromatin form.
 A new nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass.
 Nucleoli appear.
 Eventually the miotic spindle breaks-up.
Cytokinesis
• Cleavage of cell into two
halves
– Animal cells
 Constriction belt of
actin filaments
– Plant cells
 Cell plate
– Fungi and protozoa
 Mitosis occurs
within the nucleus
Cytokinesis In Animal And Plant
Cells
Daughter cells
Cleavage furrow
Contractile ring of
microfilaments
Daughter cells
100 µm
1 µmVesicles
forming
cell plate
Wall of
patent cell Cell plate
New cell wall
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (SEM)
Meiosis
Specialized type of cell division that produces
germ cells.ova and spermatozoa.
This process has 2 crucial results:-
 Reduction in number of chromosomes from
diploid (2n) to haploid (1n).
 Recombination of genes.
It is divided in 2 separate divisions-
 Meiosis 1/reductional division.
 Meiosis 2/equatorial division.
MEIOSIS- An Overview
MEIOSIS I
 Amount of DNA is doubled to
4n and the chromosome
number is also doubled to 4n
during S phase.
Prophase 1 -:
PROPHASE 1 is subdivided into following 5
phases -:
1. Leptotene
2. Zygotene
3. Pachytene
4. Diplotene
5. Diakinesis
1. LEPTOTENE
Chromosomes condense forming
long strands.
 Chromosome become visible each
chromosomes consists of two
chromatids.
 At first the chromosomes are seen as
threads bearing bead thickening
(chromosome) along their length.
2.ZYGOTENE -:
Pairing of chromosome also referred as
synapsis, takes place.
Synaptonemal complex is formed by a pair of
synapsed homologous chromosomes i called a
bivalent or a tetrad.
3. PACHYTENE
Chiasmata (crossing over sites) start
forming
 2 chromatid of each chromosomes
become distinct.The bivalent now has
formed chromatids in it called aTetrad
which is clearly visible at this stage.
 Two central chromatids becomes
coiled over each other so that they
cross at number of points called
crossing over.
4.DIPLOTENE
 Dissolution of the synaptonemal complex
 Chromosome continue to condense and then begin
to separate, revealing X shaped structures, called
chiasmata.
 2 chromosomes of bivalent now try to move apart
as they do so chromatid break at the point of
crossing.
DIAKINESIS
 The final stage of meiotic prophase I.
 Marked by terminalisation of chiasmata
 Nucleolus and nuclear envelop disappear, freeing
the chromosomes into the cytoplasm.
 Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase- 1
Prophase I
 METAPHASE 1-
Homologus chromosomes align
as pairs on the equatorial plate of
spindle apparatus.
Spindle Equatorial
ANAPHASE 1-
 Homologous chromosomes migrate away from each
other going to opposite poles.
 Sister chromatids still remain associated at their
centromeres
TELOPHASE 1-
 Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus reappear .
 Nuclei are formed
 Cytokinesis occur giving rise
to 2 daughter cells.
2 cell & cell cycle
 The stage between the two meiotic divisions
is called interkinesis and is generally short
lived.
 Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a
much simpler prophase than prophase I.
Figure 13.7 The stages of meiotic cell division: Meiosis II
Meiosis II : Separates sister
chromatids
 Proceeds similar to mitosis
 THERE IS NO INTERPHASE II !
Prophase II
 A spindle apparatus starts forming
 The nuclear membrane disappears by the
end of prophase II .
 The chromosomes again become
compact.
Metaphase II
 The chromosomes are positioned on the
metaphase plate in a mitosis-like fashion
 Kinetochores of sister chromatids of each
chromosome pointing toward opposite poles
Anaphase II
 The centromeres of sister chromatids finally
separate
 The sister chromatids of each pair move toward
opposite poles
(Now individual chromosomes)
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
 Nuclear envelop forms around two groups of
chromosomes once again .
 Cytokinesis follows resulting into four haploid
daughter cells.
Haploid cells (n)
2 cell & cell cycle
Cell cycle checkpoints
They are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle.
 Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of
necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage.
The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been
met.
Several checkpoints are designed to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not
passed on to daughter cells.
 Three main checkpoints exist:
1. G1/S checkpoint . G1/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is
also known as restriction point.
2. G2/M checkpoint.
p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G1/S and
G2/M checkpoints.
3. Spindle assembly checkpoint, between
metaphase and anaphase
Cell cycle can be arrested if spindle fibers are
not attached properly to chromatids
2 cell & cell cycle
Regulation of the Cell Cycle
 Cyclin: major control switch for the cell cycle
 Cdk (Cyclin-dependent kinase (phospohorylation)): major control switch; activated by cyclin;
causesG1  S or G2  M.
 Cyclins form the regulatory subunit and Cdks the catalytic subunit
 Checkpoints
 DNA damage checkpoints, including tumor suppressor genes
 p53: protein that blocks the cell cycle if DNA is damaged and can cause apoptosis.A p53 mutation is the most
frequent mutation leading to cancer.
 Spindle checkpoints
Two families of proteins are involved in involved in the regulation
process—
i) Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdks)
ii) Cyclins.
a)Cyclin-Dependent Protein Kinase (Cdks)
A Cdks is an enzyme that adds negatively charged phosphate groups to other molecules in a
process called phosphorylation.
Through phosphorylation, Cdks signal the cell that it is ready to pass into the next stage of the cell
cycle.
Cyclin-Dependent Protein Kinases are dependent on cyclins & Cyclins bind to Cdks, activating the
Cdks to phosphorylate other molecules.
b)Cyclins
Cyclins are named such because they undergo a constant cycle of synthesis and degradation
during cell division.
When cyclins are synthesized, they act as an activating protein and bind to Cdks forming a cyclin-
Cdk complex.
This complex then acts as a signal to the cell to pass to the next cell cycle phase.
Eventually, the cyclin degrades, deactivating the Cdk, thus signaling exit from a particular phase.
2 cell & cell cycle

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2 cell & cell cycle

  • 2. CELL CYCLE Described by Howard and Pele in 1953 Cell Cycle is defined as “The sequence of events involving growth and division, a cell undergoes from the time of its formation by division of parent cell to its own division into daughter cells .”
  • 3. Five Phases of the Cell Cycle  Interphase It is divided into three phases-: G1 - primary growth phase S – synthesis; DNA replicated G2 - secondary growth phase collectively these 3 stages are called interphase M - Mitosis C – Cytokinesis 3
  • 5. CONCEPT OF G0 PHASE-  Nonproliferative cells in eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely , e.g. neurons Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell's progeny nonviable.  Some cells enter the G0 phase for a short period of time e.g., liver and kidney cells. Many cells do not enter G0 and continue to divide throughout an organism's life, e.g. epithelial cells
  • 7. Interphase (a) G1 Stage 1st growth stage after cell division Cells mature by making more cytoplasm & organelles Cell carries on its normal metabolic activities 7
  • 8. Interphase –> S Stage Synthesis stage DNA is copied or replicated 8 Two identical copies of DNA Original DNA
  • 9. Interphase – G2 Stage 2nd Growth Stage Occurs after DNA has been copied All cell structures needed for division are made (e.g. centrioles) Both organelles & proteins are synthesized 9
  • 10. Interphase Animal Cell Plant Cell Photographs from: http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/biol1110/Stages.htm
  • 11. What Happens in Interphase G2……… 11 What the cell looks like Animal Cell What’s occurring
  • 12. Cell Cycle 12 ughter Cells DNA Copied Cells Mature Cells prepare for Division Cell Divides into Identical cells
  • 13. Chromosomes  All eukaryotic cells store genetic information in chromosomes.  Human cells have 46 chromosomes.  23 nearly-identical pairs
  • 14. Structure of Chromosomes  Chromosomes are composed of a complex of DNA and protein called chromatin that condenses during cell division  DNA exists as a single, long, double-stranded fiber extending chromosome’s entire length.  Each unduplicated chromosome contains one DNA molecule, which may be several inches long
  • 15.  After every 200 nucleotide pairs, the DNA wraps twice around a group of 8 histone proteins to form a nucleosome.  Higher order coiling and supercoiling also helps in condensing and packaging the chromatin inside the nucleus. Structure of Chromosomes
  • 16. Chromosomes  Non-homologous chromosomes  Look different  Control different traits  Sex chromosomes  Are distinct from each other in their characteristics  Are represented as X andY  Determine the sex of the individual, XX being female, XY being male  In a diploid cell, the chromosomes occur in pairs. The 2 members of each pair are called homologous chromosomes or homologues.
  • 17. Chromosomes  A diploid cell has two sets of each of its chromosomes  In human being 46 chromosomes are present(2n = 46)  In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred all the chromosomes are duplicated and thus each chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids Maternal set of chromosomes Paternal set of chromosomes 2n = 6 Two sister chromatids of one replicated chromosome Two nonsister chromatids in a homologous pair Pair of homologous chromosomes (one from each set) Centromere
  • 18. Homologues Chromosomes  Homologous chromosomes: • Look the same • Control the same traits • May code for different forms of each trait • Independent origin - each one was inherited from a different parent
  • 19. Chromosome Duplication 0.5 µm Chromosome duplication (including DNA synthesis) Centromere Separation of sister chromatids Sister chromatids Centrometers Sister chromatids A eukaryotic cell has multiple chromosomes, one of which is represented here. Before duplication, each chromosome has a single DNA molecule. Once duplicated, a chromosome consists of two sister chromatids connected at the centromere. Each chromatid contains a copy of the DNA molecule. Mechanical processes separate the sister chromatids into two chromosomes and distribute them to two daughter cells.  In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense
  • 20.  Because of duplication, each condensed chromosome consists of 2 identical chromatids joined by a centromere.  Each duplicated chromosome contains 2 identical DNA molecules (unless a mutation occurred), one in each chromatid: Chromosome Duplication Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Two unduplicated chromosomes Centromere Sister chromatids Sister chromatids Duplication Non-sister chromatids Two duplicated chromosomes
  • 21. Structure of Chromosomes  The centromere is a constricted region of the chromosome containing a specific DNA sequence, to which is bound 2 discs of protein called kinetochores.  Kinetochores serve as points of attachment for microtubules that move the chromosomes during cell division: Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Metaphase chromosome Kinetochore Kinetochore microtubules Centromere region of chromosome Sister Chromatids
  • 22. Structure of Chromosomes  Diploid - A cell possessing two copies of each chromosome (human body cells).  Homologous chromosomes are made up of sister chromatids joined at the centromere.  Haploid - A cell possessing a single copy of each chromosome (human sex cells).
  • 23.  KARYOTYPE it is a chromosome complement of a cell or organism depicting the number , size and form of the chromosome as seen in metaphase of mitosis.  Chromosomes are assembled as homologous pairs in decreasing order of length.
  • 24. CELL DIVISION  Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells.This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms.  Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission.  Eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis.  A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four. Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing
  • 25.  DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, is required every time a cell divides. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.
  • 26. Protein synthesis  Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities.  This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA.  Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.
  • 27. Transcription  Process by which genetic information encoded in DNA is copied onto messenger RNA  Occurs in the nucleus  DNA  mRNA Translation  Process by which information encoded in mRNA is used to assemble a protein at a ribosome  Occurs on a Ribosome  mRNA  protein
  • 28. CELL DIVISION OCCURS IN 3 WAYS- AMITOSIS MITOSIS MEIOSIS
  • 29. AMITOSIS  Amitosis is very simple, it occurs without the formation of spindle and appearance of chromosome  Nuclear envelope remains intact.  E.g – Macromolecules of ciliates such as paramecium.  In each case division of nucleus called KARYOGENESIS, occurs before the division of cytoplasm termed CYTOKINESIS
  • 30. MITOSIS  MITOSIS was 1ST described by GERMAN BIOLOGIST EDUARD STRASBURGER in plant cell in1875 and later by another GERMAN BIOLOGISTWALTHER FLEMMING in animal cell 1879.  TERMED MITOSIS byWALTHER FLEMMING in 1882. DEFINITION  It is defined as" the division of a parent cell into 2 identical daughter cells each with a nucleus having the same amount of DNA, the same number and kind of chromosomes and same hereditary instructions as parent cell.”  Hence also known as EQUATIONAL DIVISION.
  • 31. INTERPHASE  Period between two successive division.  Greater part of interphase is called G1 stage.  S Stage: - Synthesis of DNA takes place.  G2: - Protein synthesis takes placed required for cell division.
  • 32. MECHANISM OF MITOSIS  It involve a series of changes in nucleus as well as cytoplasm Therefore often called as indirect division Two main events in mitosis -:  Karyokinesis  Cytokinesis
  • 33. Karyokinesis may be divided into four stages   PROPHASE  METAPHASE  ANAPHASE  TELOPHASE
  • 35. STAGES OF MITOSIS EARLY PROPHASE  Early in the prophase stage the chromatin fibers shorten into chromosomes  Each prophase chromosome consists of a pair of identical double- stranded chromatids.
  • 36. LATE PROPHASE  Nucleolus disappears, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the two centrosomes begin to form the mitotic spindle (which is an assembly of microtubules).  As the microtubules extend in length between the centrosomes, the centrosomes are pushed to opposite "poles" (extremes) of the cell.  Eventually, the spindle extends between two opposite poles of the cell.
  • 38. Review of Prophase 38 What the cell looks like
  • 39. METAPHASE  CHROMOSOME CONDENSATIONCONTINUES INTO METAPHASE.  MOST STRIKING FEATURE-CHROMOSOMES BECOME ALIGNEDWITHTHERECENTOMERES IN A SINGLE TRANSVERSE PLANE.  THIS PLANE LIES PERPENDICULARTOTHE LONG AXIS OF SPINDLE AND IS KNOWN AS EQUTORIAL PLATE.  OFTEN KNOWN AS METAPHASE PLATE.
  • 41. ANAPHASE  The centromeres split separating the two members of each chromatid pair - which then move to the opposite poles of the cell.  When they are separated , the chromatids are now called as chromosomes.  As the chromosomes are pulled by the microtubules during anaphase, they appear to be "V"-shaped because the centromeres lead the way, dragging the trailing arms of the chromosomes towards the poles
  • 44. TELOPHASE Telophase begins after the chromosomal movement stops.  The identical sets of chromosomes - which are by this stage at opposite poles of the cell, uncoil and revert to the long, thin, thread-like chromatin form.  A new nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass.  Nucleoli appear.  Eventually the miotic spindle breaks-up.
  • 45. Cytokinesis • Cleavage of cell into two halves – Animal cells  Constriction belt of actin filaments – Plant cells  Cell plate – Fungi and protozoa  Mitosis occurs within the nucleus
  • 46. Cytokinesis In Animal And Plant Cells Daughter cells Cleavage furrow Contractile ring of microfilaments Daughter cells 100 µm 1 µmVesicles forming cell plate Wall of patent cell Cell plate New cell wall (a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (SEM)
  • 47. Meiosis Specialized type of cell division that produces germ cells.ova and spermatozoa. This process has 2 crucial results:-  Reduction in number of chromosomes from diploid (2n) to haploid (1n).  Recombination of genes. It is divided in 2 separate divisions-  Meiosis 1/reductional division.  Meiosis 2/equatorial division.
  • 49. MEIOSIS I  Amount of DNA is doubled to 4n and the chromosome number is also doubled to 4n during S phase.
  • 50. Prophase 1 -: PROPHASE 1 is subdivided into following 5 phases -: 1. Leptotene 2. Zygotene 3. Pachytene 4. Diplotene 5. Diakinesis
  • 51. 1. LEPTOTENE Chromosomes condense forming long strands.  Chromosome become visible each chromosomes consists of two chromatids.  At first the chromosomes are seen as threads bearing bead thickening (chromosome) along their length.
  • 52. 2.ZYGOTENE -: Pairing of chromosome also referred as synapsis, takes place. Synaptonemal complex is formed by a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes i called a bivalent or a tetrad.
  • 53. 3. PACHYTENE Chiasmata (crossing over sites) start forming  2 chromatid of each chromosomes become distinct.The bivalent now has formed chromatids in it called aTetrad which is clearly visible at this stage.  Two central chromatids becomes coiled over each other so that they cross at number of points called crossing over.
  • 54. 4.DIPLOTENE  Dissolution of the synaptonemal complex  Chromosome continue to condense and then begin to separate, revealing X shaped structures, called chiasmata.  2 chromosomes of bivalent now try to move apart as they do so chromatid break at the point of crossing.
  • 55. DIAKINESIS  The final stage of meiotic prophase I.  Marked by terminalisation of chiasmata  Nucleolus and nuclear envelop disappear, freeing the chromosomes into the cytoplasm.  Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase- 1
  • 57.  METAPHASE 1- Homologus chromosomes align as pairs on the equatorial plate of spindle apparatus. Spindle Equatorial
  • 58. ANAPHASE 1-  Homologous chromosomes migrate away from each other going to opposite poles.  Sister chromatids still remain associated at their centromeres
  • 59. TELOPHASE 1-  Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear .  Nuclei are formed  Cytokinesis occur giving rise to 2 daughter cells.
  • 61.  The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and is generally short lived.  Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a much simpler prophase than prophase I.
  • 62. Figure 13.7 The stages of meiotic cell division: Meiosis II
  • 63. Meiosis II : Separates sister chromatids  Proceeds similar to mitosis  THERE IS NO INTERPHASE II !
  • 64. Prophase II  A spindle apparatus starts forming  The nuclear membrane disappears by the end of prophase II .  The chromosomes again become compact.
  • 65. Metaphase II  The chromosomes are positioned on the metaphase plate in a mitosis-like fashion  Kinetochores of sister chromatids of each chromosome pointing toward opposite poles
  • 66. Anaphase II  The centromeres of sister chromatids finally separate  The sister chromatids of each pair move toward opposite poles (Now individual chromosomes)
  • 67. Telophase II and Cytokinesis  Nuclear envelop forms around two groups of chromosomes once again .  Cytokinesis follows resulting into four haploid daughter cells. Haploid cells (n)
  • 69. Cell cycle checkpoints They are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle.  Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Several checkpoints are designed to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells.  Three main checkpoints exist: 1. G1/S checkpoint . G1/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point. 2. G2/M checkpoint. p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G1/S and G2/M checkpoints.
  • 70. 3. Spindle assembly checkpoint, between metaphase and anaphase Cell cycle can be arrested if spindle fibers are not attached properly to chromatids
  • 72. Regulation of the Cell Cycle  Cyclin: major control switch for the cell cycle  Cdk (Cyclin-dependent kinase (phospohorylation)): major control switch; activated by cyclin; causesG1  S or G2  M.  Cyclins form the regulatory subunit and Cdks the catalytic subunit  Checkpoints  DNA damage checkpoints, including tumor suppressor genes  p53: protein that blocks the cell cycle if DNA is damaged and can cause apoptosis.A p53 mutation is the most frequent mutation leading to cancer.  Spindle checkpoints
  • 73. Two families of proteins are involved in involved in the regulation process— i) Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdks) ii) Cyclins. a)Cyclin-Dependent Protein Kinase (Cdks) A Cdks is an enzyme that adds negatively charged phosphate groups to other molecules in a process called phosphorylation. Through phosphorylation, Cdks signal the cell that it is ready to pass into the next stage of the cell cycle. Cyclin-Dependent Protein Kinases are dependent on cyclins & Cyclins bind to Cdks, activating the Cdks to phosphorylate other molecules. b)Cyclins Cyclins are named such because they undergo a constant cycle of synthesis and degradation during cell division. When cyclins are synthesized, they act as an activating protein and bind to Cdks forming a cyclin- Cdk complex. This complex then acts as a signal to the cell to pass to the next cell cycle phase. Eventually, the cyclin degrades, deactivating the Cdk, thus signaling exit from a particular phase.