Grammar (noun): the structure and system of a language, usually consider to consist of syntax and morphology. Or Grammar is the set of rules which help us to understand language. Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language.

1. ASSIGNMENT:
TYPES OF GRAMMAR:
GROUP MEMBERS:
Abdullah
Ehatsham Riaz
Hamza Rao
Asif Mehmood
syed Hassan Raza
Usama Ijaz
Submitted to:
Mr.Mazhar

2. GRAMMAR:
What is Grammar?
Grammar (noun): the structure and system of a language, usually consider to
consist of syntax and morphology. Or
Grammar is the set of rules which help us to understand language.
Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The
more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and
effectiveness of the way we and others use language.
Main types of grammar:
Descriptive grammar :
Refers to the structure of a language as it's actually used by speakers and writers.
Prescriptive grammar:
Refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used.
Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists
in descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie
our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

3. On the other hand, prescriptive grammaticians lay out rules about what they
believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language.
Further types of Grammar:
Comparative Grammar:
The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of related languages.
Contemporary work in comparative grammar is concerned with "a faculty of
language that provides an explanatory basis for how a human being can acquire a
first language. In this way, the theory of grammar is a theory of human language
and hence establishes the relationship among all languages."
And Comparative is the name for the grammar used when comparing two things.
The two basic ways to compare are using as .. as or than.
For example:
She's twice as old as her sister.
He's not as stupid as he looks!
This computer is better than that one.
Generative Grammar:
A grammar (or set of rules) that indicates the structure and interpretation of
sentences which native speakers of a language accept as belonging to the
language.
The basic areas of study include phonology (the study of the sound patterns of
language), morphology (the study of the structure and meaning of words), syntax

4. (the study of the structure of sentences), and semantics (the study of linguistic
meaning).
Adopting the term generative from mathematics, linguist Noam Chomsky
introduced the concept of generative grammar in the 1950s.
Simply put, a generative grammar is a theory of competence: a model of the
psychological system of unconscious knowledge that underlies a speaker's ability
to produce and interpret utterances in a language A good way of trying to
understand Chomsky's point is to think of a generative grammar as essentially a
definition of competence: a set of criteria that linguistic structures must meet to
be judged acceptable.
Mental Grammar:
The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce
language that other speakers can understand. "All humans are born with the
capacity for constructing a Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience; this
capacity for language is called the Language Faculty.
One way to clarify mental or competence grammar is to ask a friend a question
about a sentence. Your friend probably won't know why it's correct, but that
friend will know if it's correct. So one of the features of mental or competence
grammar is this incredible sense of correctness and the ability to hear something
that 'sounds odd' in a language.
Performance Grammar:
A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by speakers in
dialogues. "Performance grammar thus far centers attention on language
production; it is my belief that the problem of production must be dealt with
before problems of reception and comprehension can properly be investigated."

5. Traditional Grammar:
The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of language
that is commonly taught in schools.
"We say that traditional grammar is prescriptive because it focuses on the
distinction between what some people do with language and what they ought to
do with it, according to a pre-established standard. . . . The chief goal of
traditional grammar, therefore, is perpetuating a historical model of what
supposedly constitutes proper language."
Transformational Grammar:
A theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by
linguistic transformations and phrase structures.
"In transformational grammar, the term 'rule' is used not for a precept set down
by an external authority but for a principle that is unconsciously yet regularly
followed in the production and interpretation of sentences. A rule is a direction
for forming a sentence or a part of a sentence, which has been internalized by the
native speaker."
Though it is certainly true, as many writers have pointed out, that sentence-
combining exercises existed before the advent of transformational grammar, it
should be evident that the transformational concept of embedding gave sentence
combining a theoretical foundation upon which to build
Universal Grammar:
The system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human
languages and considered to be innate. "Taken together, the linguistic principles
of Universal Grammar constitute a theory of the organization of the initial state of
the mind/brain of the language learner--that is, a theory of the human faculty for
language."

6. MISTAKES IN GRAMMAR
1: Your/you’re
The rules:
 “Your” indicates possession – something belonging to you.
 “You’re” is short for “you are”.
You have done your home work
You’re the man of principle
2: Its/it’s
The rules:
 “It’s” is only ever used when short for “it is”.
 “Its” indicates something belonging to something that isn’t masculine or feminine
(like “his” and “hers”, but used when you’re not talking about a person).
 If it helps, remember that inanimate objects can’t really possess something in the
way a human can.
It’s going to be extreamly gorgeous & I will be dancing with my
partner by the moon and its light
3: “Could/would/should of”
This common mistake arises because the contracted form of “could have” –
“could’ve” – sounds a bit like “could of” when you say it out loud. This mistake is
made frequently across all three of these words.
The rules:
 When people write “should of”, what they really mean is “should have”.
 Written down, the shortened version of “should have” is “should’ve”.
 “Should’ve” and “Should have” are both correct; the latter is more formal.
She should have told the truth
If I had chosen CS in UOL I would have got onsite now
You could have done better on your exam

7. 4: There/their/they’re
The rules:
 Use “there” to refer to a place that isn’t here – “over there”.
 We also use “there” to state something – “There are no cakes left.”
 “Their” indicates possession – something belonging to them.
 “They’re” is short for “they are”.
I want to go there
There are many apples in table
They’re the best players in team/league
5: Fewer/less
.The rules:
 “Fewer” refers to items you can count individually.
 “Less” refers to a commodity, such as sand or water, that you can’t count
individually.
I have less patience than my sisters .
There were fewer apples on the table .
6: Amount/number
These two work in the same way as “less” and “fewer”, referring respectively to
commodities and individual items.
The rules:
 “Amount” refers to a commodity, which can’t be counted (for instance water).
 “Number” refers to individual things that can be counted (for example bird)
The amount he had in cash wash insufficient
How much numbers you got in exams

8. 7: To/two/too
the rules:
 “To” is used in the infinitive form of a verb – “to talk”.
 “To” is also used to mean “towards”.
 “Too” means “also” or “as well”.
 “Two” refers to the number 2
After me two girls came in parlor to get their hair done too
8: Then/than
Confusion between “then” and “that” probably arises because the two look and sound similar.
The rules:
 “Than” is used in comparisons.
 “Then” is used to indicate something following something else in time, as in step-by-step instructions, or
planning a schedule (“we’ll go there then there”).
I ate too many cookies then
You have more cookies than me
9: Me/myself/I
The rules:
 When referring to yourself and someone else, put their name first in the sentence.
 Choose “me” or “I” by removing their name and seeing which sounds right.
 For example, with the sentence “John and I are off to the circus”, you wouldn’t say “me is off to
the circus” if it was just you; you’d say “I am off to the circus”. Therefore when talking about
going with someone else, you say “John and I”.
 You only use “myself” if you’ve already used “I”, making you the subject of the sentence.
Wait for me
I wash myself
I am going to school
10: I.e. and e.g.

9. These two abbreviations are commonly confused, and many people use them
interchangeably. However, their uses are very different.
The rules:
 I.e. means “that is” or “in other words”. It comes from the Latin words “id est”.
 E.g. means “for example”. It comes from the Latin words “exempli gratia”.
 Only use “i.e.” and “e.g.” when writing informally. In formal documents, such as
essays, it is better to write out the meanings (“for example” or “that is”).