1.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
All the material are integrated from the textbook "Fundamentals of Data Structures
in C” and NTU Website

2.
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How to create programs
 Requirements
 Analysis: bottom-up vs. top-down
 Design: data objects and operations
 Refinement and Coding
 Verification
 Program Proving
 Testing
 Debugging

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Data Structure: How data are
organized and hence operated
 You’ve been very familiar with arrays in
your programming assignments. They are
basic (yet powerful!) data structures.
 They can hold data (objects)—e.g., integers.
 They are structured—structured in a way that
the data held inside can be operated.
 Each element in an array has an index. With that,
you can store or retrieve an element.

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Learning Data Structures, and
Algorithms
 You want your tasks to be performed
efficiently. You need good methods
(algorithms).
 Data must be structured in some
manner to be operated.
 Good structures can be operated efficiently.

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Example
 For example, suppose that you are
building a database storing the data of
all (past, present, and future) students
of NTHU, which are growing in size.
 You’ll need to find anybody’s data in the
database (to search/retrieve).
 To enter new entries into it (to insert).
 Etc.

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Example
 You can use an array to implement the
database.
 To insert a new entry, simply add it to the
first empty array cell.
 If the current array is full, allocate a new array
whose size is the double of the current. Then
copy all the original entries from the old array
to the new one.
 To search for an entry, simply looks at all
entries in the array, one by one.

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Example
 Your programming experience, however,
tells you that this is not a good method.
 In Chapter 10, you’ll see sophisticated
data structures that can be operated
(searched, inserted/deleted, etc.)
efficiently.
 Then, you’ll just feel how data can be
cleverly structured to serve as the basis of
fast algorithms.

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Example 2
 This time you want to work with
polynomials, i.e., functions of the form
f(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1 + … + a0
 You’ll need to store them, as well as to
multiply or add them.
 You may allocate an array to store the
coefficients of a polynomial.
 E.g., A[i] stores ai.

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Example 2
 Alternatively, you can use a linked list to
store it.
 Each node needs to store the coefficient and
the exponent.
E.g., to store 3x2 + 5, a linked list like
[3|2] -> [5|0] is constructed.
 To represent polynomials, both data
structures have their relative advantages
and drawbacks in time and space
considerations, etc (see later chapters).

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Searching in Arrays
 You are able to write, in minutes, a
program to search sequentially in an
array.
 However, when the numbers in an array
are sorted, you can do much faster…
 …using binary search, which you probably
are also familiar with.
 You may say that, a sorted array is not
the same structure as a general array.

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Binary Search
 Let A[0..n - 1] be an array of n integers.
 We want to ask: is some integer x
stored in A?
 Suppose that A is sorted (say, in
ascending order), i.e., (for simplicity
assume that the numbers are distinct)
A[0] < A[1] < … < A[n - 1].
 To be more concrete, let n be 5.

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Binary Search
 Observation:
If x > A[2], then x must fall in A[3..4],
(or x is not in A).
If x < A[2], then x must fall in A[0..1].
 Ex: Let x = 11.
 A = 3 5 7 11 13
 x (= 11) > A[2] (= 7), so we need not
consider A[0..1].

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Binary Search
 Example: Let x = 17. Let A contain the
following 8 integers. Initially, let left = 0
and right = 7 (shown in red).
 left and right define the range to be
searched.
 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19
 mid = (0 + 7) / 2 = 3 (rounded).
 A[mid] = 7 < x, so let left = mid + 1 = 4,
and continue the search.

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 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19
 mid = (4 + 7) / 2 = 5, A[mid] = 13, x = 17.
 A[mid] < x, so let left = mid + 1 = 6, and
continue the search.
 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19
 mid = (6 + 7) / 2 = 6, A[mid] = 17, x = 17.
 A[mid] = x, so return mid = 6, the desired
position, and we’re done!

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Binary Search
 Binsearch(A, x, left, right) /* finds x in
A[left..right] */
while left <= right do
mid = (left + right) / 2;
if x < A[mid] then right = mid – 1;
else if x == A[mid] then return mid;
else left = mid + 1;
return -1; /* not found */

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Recursive Functions
 A function that invokes (or is defined in
terms of) itself directly or indirectly is a
recursive function.
 Fibonacci sequence: Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2
 Summation: sum(n) = sum(n - 1) + A[n]
 Where sum(i) is the sum of the first i items in A
 Binomial coefficient (n choose k):
C(n, k) = C(n – 1, k) + C(n – 1, k – 1)
 The combinatorial interpretation of this is profound—
try it out if you’ve not learned it yet!

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Recursive Binary Search
 Binsearch(A, x, left, right)
if left > right then return -1;
mid = (left + right) / 2;
if x < A[mid] then return
Binsearch(A, x, left, mid – 1);
else if x == A[mid] then return mid;
else return Binsearch(A, x, mid+ 1, right);

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Data Abstraction
 Before implementation, we need first to
know the specification of the objects to be
stored as well as the operations that should
be supported, before we can implement it.
 In our previous polynomial example, first we
have the demand to store polynomials (the
objects), supporting multiplications and
other operations. The specification is
independent of how it is implemented (e.g.
using arrays or linked lists).

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Abstract Data Type (ADT)
 An abstract data type (ADT) is a data type
that is organized in such a way that the
specification of the objects and the
specification of the operations on the objects
is separated from the representation of the
objects and the implementation of the
operations.
 No fixed syntax to describe them. The
specifications need only be clear.

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 Structure Natural_Number:
 Objects: an ordered subrange of the integers
starting at 0 and ending at the maximum integer
(INT_MAX) on the computer.
 Functions:
 Nat_Num Zero() ::= 0
 Nat_Num Add(x, y) ::= if (x+y) <= INT_MAX then
return x + y, else return INT_MAX.
 And so on. This example is actually too simple so that
you may feel that the implementation of the functions
have been stated. But this is generally not the case.
ADT for Natural Numbers (an
example)

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*Structure 1.1:Abstract data type Natural_Number (p.17)
structure Natural_Number is
objects: an ordered subrange of the integers starting at zero and
ending at the maximum integer (INT_MAX) on the computer
functions:
for all x, y  Nat_Number; TRUE, FALSE  Boolean
and where +, -, <, and == are the usual integer operations.
Nat_No Zero ( ) ::= 0
Boolean Is_Zero(x) ::= if (x) return FALSE
else return TRUE
Nat_No Add(x, y) ::= if ((x+y) <= INT_MAX) return x+y
else return INT_MAX
Boolean Equal(x,y) ::= if (x== y) return TRUE
else return FALSE
Nat_No Successor(x) ::= if (x == INT_MAX) return x
else return x+1
Nat_No Subtract(x,y) ::= if (x<y) return 0
else return x-y
end Natural_Number ::= is defined as

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Performance Analysis
 We’re most interested in the time and
space requirements of an algorithm.
 The space complexity of a program is
the amount of memory that it needs to
run to completion. The time complexity
is the amount of computer time that it
needs to run to completion.

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Algorithm ?
 A number of rules, which are to be followed
in a prescribed order, for solving a specific
type of problems.
 Computer Algorithm
 Finiteness steps）
 Definiteness step
 Effectiveness
 Input/Output
 （O.S. terminate computational procedure）

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Algorithm is everywhere !
 Operating Systems
 System Programming
 Numerical Applications
 Non-numerical Applications
：
 Algorithm Implement:
 Software
 Hardware
 Firmware

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Measurements
 Criteria
 Is it correct?
 Is it readable?
 …
 Performance Analysis (machine independent)
 space complexity: storage requirement
 time complexity: computing time
 Performance Measurement (machine
dependent)

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Space Complexity
 The space needed includes two parts:
 (1) Fixed space requirement: Not
dependent on the number and size of
the program’s inputs and outputs.
 Instruction space, simple variables (e.g.,
int), fixed-size structure variables (such as
struct), and constants.

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Space Complexity
 (2) Variable space requirement S(I):
Depends on the instance I involved.
 In recursive calls, many copies of simple
variables (e.g. many int’s) may exist. Such
space requirement is included in S(I).
 S(I) may depend on some characteristics
of I. The characteristic we’ll most often
encounter is n, the size of the instance.
 In this case we denote S(I) as S(n).

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Space Complexity
float abc(float a, float b, float c) {
return a+b+b*c + (a+b-c) / (a+b) + 4;
}
 Sabc(I) = 0.
 Only has fixed space requirement.

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Space Complexity
float sum(float list[], int n) {/* adds up list[] */
float tempsum = 0;
int i;
for (i=0; i < n; i++) tempsum += list[i];
return tempsum; }
 In C, the array is passed using the address. So
Ssum(n) = 0.
 In Pascal, the array may be passed by copying values. If
this is the case, then Ssum(n) = n.

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Space Complexity
float rsum(float list[], int n) {
if (n > 0) return rsum(list, n-1) + list[n-1];
return 0; }
 For each recursive call, the OS must save:
parameters, local variables, and the return
address.
 In this example, two parameters (list[] and n)
and the return address (internally) are saved
for each recursive call.

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 To add a list of n numbers, there are n
recursive calls in total.
 So Srsum(n) = (c1 + c2 + c3) * n, where c1, c2
and c3 are the number of bytes (or other unit
of interest) needed for each of these types
(list[], n, and return address).

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Time Complexity
 We’re interested in the number of steps
taken by a program. But what is a step?
 A program step is a syntactically or
semantically meaningful program segment
whose execution time is independent of the
instance characteristics.
 For a program, everybody can have his/her own
steps defined. The important thing is the
independency of the instance size, etc.

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Statement s/e Freq. Tot.
float rsum(float list[], int n) {
if (n > 0)
return rsum(list, n-1) + list[n-1];
return 0;
}
1 n+1 n+1
1 n n
1 1 1
Total 2n+2
s/e: #steps per execution.

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Time Complexity
 For some programs, for a fixed n, the time
taken by different instances may still be
different.
 For example, the binary search algorithm
depends on the position of x in array A.
 Let A = <3, 5, 7, 11>.
 If x = 5, then we need less steps than what if
x = 7.
 But in both cases, n = 4.

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Time Complexity
 So we may consider the worst case, average case,
or best case time complexity of an algorithm.
 Worst case: the maximum number of steps needed
for any possible instance of size n.
 Most commonly used. The concept of guarantee.
 Average case: under some assumption of instance
distribution, the expected number of steps needed.
 Useful. But usually most complicated to analyze.
 Best case: the opposite of worst case.
 Rarely seen.

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Asymptotic Notations
 To make exact step counts is often not necessary.
 The concept of “step” is even inexact itself.
 It is more impressive to obtain a “functional”
improvement in the time complexity than an
improvement by a constant multiple.
 It is good to improve 2n2 to n2.
 It is even better to improve 2n2 to 1000n.
 For n large enough, you know that n2 is much larger
than 1000n.

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*Figure 1.7:Function values (p.38)

38.
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39.
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*Figure 1.9:Times on a 1 billion instruction per second
computer(p.40)

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Asymptotic Notations
 Therefore, in many cases we do not worry about
the coefficients in the time complexity.
 Not in “all” cases since, when we cannot have functional
improvement, we’ll still want improvements in the
coefficients.
 We regard 2n2 as equivalent to n2. They belong to
the same class in this sense.
 Similarly, 2n2 + 100n and n2 belong to the same
class, since the quadratic term is dominant.
 n2 and n belong to different classes.

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Asymptotic Notation (O)
 Definition
f(n) = O(g(n)) iff there exist positive
constants c and n0 such that f(n)  cg(n) for
all n, n  n0.
 Examples
 3n+2=O(n) /* 3n+24n for n2 */
 3n+3=O(n) /* 3n+34n for n3 */
 100n+6=O(n) /* 100n+6101n for n10 */
 10n2+4n+2=O(n2) /* 10n2+4n+211n2 for n5 */
 6*2n+n2=O(2n) /* 6*2n+n2 7*2n for n4 */

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Example
 Complexity of c1n2+c2n and c3n
 for sufficiently large of value, c3n is faster than c1n2+c2n
 for small values of n, either could be faster
 c1=1, c2=2, c3=100 --> c1n2+c2n  c3n for n  98
 c1=1, c2=2, c3=1000 --> c1n2+c2n  c3n for n  998
 break even point
 no matter what the values of c1, c2, and c3, the n
beyond which c3n is always faster than c1n2+c2n

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 O(1): constant
 O(n): linear
 O(n2): quadratic
 O(n3): cubic
 O(2n): exponential
 O(logn)
 O(nlogn)

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Asymptotic Notations
 To make these concepts more precise,
asymptotic notations are introduced.
 f(n) = O(g(n)) if there exist positive
constants c and n0 such that f(n)  c g(n) for
all n > n0.
 1000n = O(2n2). This is to say that 1000n is
no larger than () 2n2 in this sense.
 You can choose c = 500 and n0 = 1.
 Then 1000n  500 * 2n2 = 1000n2 for all n > 1.

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Asymptotic Notations
 1000n = O(n) since you can choose c =
1000 and n0 = 1.
 1000 = O(1).
 For constant functions, the choice of n0 is
arbitrary.
 n2  O(n) since for any c > 0 and any n0 > 0,
there always exists some n > n0 such that n2
> cn.

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Asymptotic Notations
 2n2 + 100n = O(n2), since
2n2 + 100n < 200n2 = O(n2)
 This last equation may be validated by choosing
c = 200 and n0 = 1.
 So you can feel that in asymptotic notations we
only care about the most dominant term. Simply
throw out the minor terms. Throw out the
constants, too.
 log2 n = O(n). May choose c = 1 and n0 = 2.
 n log2 n = O(n2).

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Asymptotic Notations
 n100 = O(2n). You may choose c = 1 and n0 = 1000.
 O(1): constant, O(n): linear,
O(n2): quadratic, O(n3): cubic,
O(log n): logarithmic, O(n log n),
O(2n): exponential.
 These are the most commonly encountered time
complexities.
 The base of the log is not relevant asymptotically,
since logba = (1/log2b) log2a, different only by a
constant multiple 1/log2b.

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Asymptotic Notations
 f(n) = O(g(n)) is just a notation. f(n)
and O(g(n)) are not the same thing.
 So you can’t write O(g(n)) = f(n).
 It is also common to view O(g(n)) as a
set of functions, and f(n) = O(g(n))
actually means f(n)  O(g(n)).
 O(g(n)) = {f(n): for some c > 0 and n0 > 0
such that f(n) < c g(n) for all n > n0}

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Asymptotic Notations
 n = O(n), n = O(n2), n = O(n3), …
 Choose the function g(n) closer to f(n) is
more informative.
 You may ask, why not use f(n) itself? f(n)
= O(f(n)) is the best choice. The difficulty
is: when we analyze an algorithm, we may
even not know the exact f(n). We can only
obtain an upper bound in some cases.

50.
50
Asymptotic Notations
 Thm 1.2: If f(n) = am nm + … + a1 n + a0,
then f(n) = O(nm).
 Pf: Let a = max{|am|, …, |a0|} + 1. Then
 f(n) < a nm + … + a n + a
< (m+1)a * nm for n > 1.
 So choosing c = (m+1)a and n0 = 1 just
works.
 So, again, drop the constants and minor
terms.

51.
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Asymptotic Notations
 We also have a notation for lower bounds.
 f(n) = (g(n)) if for some c > 0 and n0 > 0,
f(n)  c g(n) for all n > n0.
 n2 = (2n); choose c = 1/2 and n0 = 1.
 2n = (n100); choose c = 1 and n = 1000.
 You can prove that: If f(n) = O(g(n)), then
g(n) = (f(n)).

52.
52
Asymptotic Notations
 Thm 1.3:
If f(n) = am nm + … + a1 n + a0 and am
> 0, then f(n) = (nm).
 Pf: Exercise.
 Note that, if am < 0, then f(n)  (nm).
For example, -n2 + 1000n  (n2) since
for any c > 0 and n0 > 0, we have
–n2 + 1000n < n2 for n large.

53.
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Asymptotic Notations
 We also have a notation for “equivalence”.
 f(n) = (g(n)) if there exist c1 > 0, c2 > 0,
and n0 > 0 such that
c1 g(n)  f(n)  c2 g(n) for all n > n0.
 2n2 + 100n = (n2).
 n2  (n).
 You can prove that, f(n) = (g(n)) if and
only if f(n) = O(g(n)) and f(n) = (g(n)).

54.
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Asymptotic Notations
 Thm 1.4: If f(n) = am nm + … + a1n + a0
and am > 0, then f(n) = (nm).
 Pf: Immediate from Thm 1.2 and 1.3.

55.
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Time Complexity of Binary
Search
 At each iteration, the search range for binary
search is reduced by about a half.
 So, in any case, the number of iterations needed
cannot exceed log2n. The time complexity is
O(log n) in any case (each iteration takes O(1)).
 The worst case time complexity is (log n), which
occurs when, e.g., the number to search is not in
the array.
 Therefore, the worst case time complexity is
(log n).
 In the best case, one iteration suffices. The best
case time complexity is (1).

56.
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Time Complexity of Binary
Search
 Note that the time complexity for a
sequential search is (n), which occurs
when, e.g., the number to search is not
in the array.
 So binary search is faster than
sequential search, but it requires the
array to be sorted.

57.
57
Time Complexity of Binary
Search
 The worst case time complexity of the
recursive binary search can be stated
elegantly as:
 T(n) = T(n/2) + (1) for n > 1; T(1) = (1).
 The (1) term means some anonymous
function f(n) s.t. f(n) = (1), which is for
the time needed in addition to the time
taken by the recursive call.

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Time Complexity of Binary
Search
 Note that any function f(n) = (1) is
bounded above by a constant, and is
bounded below by a constant.
 By the definition of , there exists c > 0
and n0 > 0 such that f(n) < c for n > n0.
So f(n) < sup{|f(n)|: n  n0} + c. Similarly
f(n) is bounded below by a constant.
 So T(n) < T(n/2) + c.

59.
59
Time Complexity of Binary
Search
 For simplicity let n = 2m, so m = log n. Then
 T(n) = T(2m) < T(2m-1) + c
< T(2m-2) + 2c < …
< T(1) + m*c = O(m)
 So T(n) = O(log n).
 This may be seen as an initial guess. To
confirm the answer we may use induction.

60.
60
Time Complexity of Binary
Search
 Ind. Hyp.: T(m) < d log m for m < n.
 We are free in choosing the constant d, if it
satisfies the base case. So we can choose d to
be larger than c.
 Induction: T(n) < T(n/2) + c < d log(n/2) +
c = d log n – d + c < d log n.
 Base case: T(2) < T(1) + c < c’ < d log 2.
 Need to choose d to satisfy d > c’.
 So T(n) < d log n, implying T(n) = O(log n).

61.
61
Selection Sort
 Given several numbers, how to sort them?
 You can find the smallest number, set it
aside, find the next smallest number, and so
on, continue until all numbers are done.

62.
62
Selection Sort
 sort(A, n)
/* Assume that A is indexed by 1..n */
 for i = 1 to n - 1 do
find the index of the min. elem. in A[i..n];
swap the min. elem. with A[i];
 Observe that, at the end of the i th iteration,
A[j] holds the j th smallest element of A, for
all i  i.

63.
63
Time Complexity of Selection
Sort
 Find the minimum in A[i..n] takes
(n - i) time.
 Total time:
)
(
)
( 2
1
1 n
i
n
n
i 







64.
64
Comparison of Two Strategies
 Suppose that you want to do searches in A.
 If the search will be performed only once,
then a sequential search is good.
 If the search is to be done very frequently
(much more than n times), then it is worth
paying n2 time to sort the array first
(preprocessing), being able to do binary
search subsequently.