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Hertie	
  School	
  of	
  Governance	
  
	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  Class	
   U5	
  Law	
  and	
  Governance	
  
Convenor	
   Professor	
  Dr.	
  Nico	
  Krisch	
  	
  
	
  	
  	
  Student	
   Steven	
  Lauwers	
  
	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  Date	
   11.11.2010	
  
	
  
MEMO	
   2:	
  DOES	
   FRANCE’S	
   LAW	
   TO	
   BAN	
   THE	
   ISLAMIC	
   HIJAB,	
  OR	
   BURQA,	
  IN	
   PUBLIC	
   SPACE	
  
VIOLATE	
  THE	
  EUROPEAN	
  CONVENTION	
  ON	
  HUMAN	
  RIGHTS	
  (‘ECHR’)?	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  (word	
  count:	
  915)	
  
	
  
Introduction:	
  	
  
Article	
  9,	
  §1	
  of	
  the	
  ECHR	
  guarantees	
  the	
  “freedom	
  of	
  thought,	
  conscience	
  and	
  religion;	
  (…)	
  and	
  in	
  
public	
  or	
  private,	
  to	
  manifest	
  his	
  religion	
  or	
  belief,	
  in	
  worship,	
  teaching,	
  practice	
  and	
  observance.”	
  
This	
  freedom	
  is	
  however	
  limited	
  in	
  §2,	
  as	
  it	
  is	
  “subject	
  only	
  to	
  such	
  limitations	
  as	
  are	
  prescribed	
  by	
  
law	
  and	
  are	
  necessary	
  in	
  a	
  democratic	
  society	
  in	
  the	
  interests	
  of	
  public	
  safety,	
  for	
  the	
  protection	
  of	
  
public	
  order,	
  health	
  or	
  morals,	
  or	
  the	
  protection	
  of	
  the	
  rights	
  and	
  freedoms	
  of	
  others.”	
  i	
  The	
  memo	
  
will	
  explain	
  why	
  France’s	
  law	
  violates	
  Article	
  9	
  of	
  the	
  ECHR.	
  	
  
	
  
Interference:	
  Does	
  France’s	
  law	
  interfere	
  with	
  Article	
  9	
  of	
  the	
  ECHR?	
  
-­	
  Yes.	
  France’s	
  new	
  law	
  states	
  that	
  “(i)n	
  a	
  public	
  space,	
  it	
  is	
  prohibited	
  to	
  wear	
  clothing	
  that	
  covers	
  
the	
  face”.	
  ii	
  	
  This	
  law	
  thus	
  applies	
  to	
  the	
  Burqa	
  (or	
  Hijab):	
  a	
  garment	
  worn	
  by	
  women	
  in	
  some	
  
Islamic	
  traditions	
  to	
  cover	
  their	
  bodies	
  and	
  face	
  in	
  public	
  spaces.	
  While	
  some	
  might	
  argue	
  the	
  
Burqa,	
   or	
   Hijab,	
   is	
   “not	
   a	
   religious	
   symbol”,	
   depending	
   on	
   how	
   one	
   interprets	
   the	
   Koran,	
   it	
   is	
  
undeniably	
  associated	
  with	
  Islam	
  religion.	
  iii	
  
	
  
Legitimacy:	
  Is	
  the	
  measure	
  prescribed	
  by	
  law?	
  
-­	
  Yes.	
  If	
  we	
  refer	
  to	
  the	
  case	
  Şahin	
  v	
  Turkey,	
  law	
  can	
  be	
  defined	
  as	
  “regulatory	
  measures	
  taken	
  by	
  
professional	
   regulatory	
   bodies”	
   and	
   “the	
   provision	
   in	
   force”	
   iv.	
   The	
   Lower	
   House	
   of	
   Parliament	
  
approved	
  the	
  legislation	
  in	
  September	
  this	
  year	
  and	
  the	
  (preliminary)	
  law	
  was	
  already	
  published	
  
in	
  Le	
  Journal	
  Officiel	
  on	
  March	
  17,	
  2004.	
  The	
  European	
  Court	
  for	
  Human	
  Rights	
  (‘ECtHR’)	
  may	
  
even	
  consider	
  that	
  extensive	
  coverage	
  of	
  the	
  law	
  in	
  the	
  international	
  press	
  as	
  a	
  source	
  of	
  basic	
  
due	
  process	
  notification.	
  v	
  
	
  
Suitability:	
  Does	
  the	
  measure	
  have	
  a	
  legitimate	
  aim?	
  
-­	
  Yes.	
  §2	
  of	
  Article	
  9	
  of	
  the	
  ECHR	
  explains	
  under	
  what	
  circumstances	
  the	
  states	
  may	
  interfere	
  
with	
   religious	
   freedom.	
   France	
   argues	
   the	
   ban	
   is	
   necessary	
   in	
   their	
   democratic	
   society	
   to	
  
safeguard	
  the	
  principle	
  of	
  secularism	
  (“laicité”),	
  which	
  protects	
  government	
  affairs	
  from	
  religious	
  
involvement	
   -­‐	
   and	
   the	
   other	
   way	
   around.	
   Also,	
   in	
   order	
   to	
   uphold	
   public	
   safety	
   in	
   society,	
   a	
  
person	
  in	
  a	
  public	
  space	
  has	
  to	
  be	
  identifiable	
  at	
  all	
  times.	
  Finally,	
  as	
  the	
  Burqa	
  is	
  associated	
  with	
  
the	
  suppression	
  of	
  women,	
  the	
  ban	
  will	
  enhance	
  gender	
  equality	
  in	
  society.	
  
	
  
Necessity:	
  Is	
  the	
  measure	
  proportionate	
  to	
  the	
  aim	
  to	
  be	
  achieved?	
  
-­	
   No.	
   Article	
   9	
   of	
   the	
   ECHR	
   protects	
   the	
   individual	
   right	
   of	
   freedom	
   of	
   religion;	
   it	
   is	
   thus	
  
important	
   that	
   the	
   interference	
   of	
   the	
   French	
   government	
   with	
   Article	
   9	
   of	
   the	
   ECHR	
   is	
   well-­‐
balanced	
  with	
  an	
  individual’s	
  need	
  and/or	
  right	
  of	
  freedom	
  of	
  religion	
  and/or	
  the	
  manifestation	
  
of	
  his/her	
  religion.	
  The	
  following	
  analysis	
  will	
  show	
  that	
  the	
  measure	
  is	
  disproportionate	
  to	
  the	
  
aim	
  to	
  be	
  achieved.	
  	
  
	
  
A	
  first	
  important	
  step	
  is	
  to	
  define	
  what	
  margin	
  of	
  appreciation	
  the	
  ECtHR	
  would	
  grant	
  France	
  to	
  
interfere	
   with	
   Article	
   9	
   of	
   the	
   ECHR.	
   While	
   France	
   has	
   valid	
   concerns	
   for	
   the	
   ban	
   (ref.	
  
‘Suitability’),	
   “many	
   legal	
   provisions	
   already	
   serve	
   to	
   ban	
   or	
   in	
   certain	
   cases	
   deter	
   people	
   from	
  
wearing	
  the	
  full	
  veil	
  (…).”	
  vi	
  France	
  has	
  a	
  wide	
  range	
  of	
  individual	
  prescriptions	
  or	
  prohibitions,	
  
making	
   its	
   legislation,	
   compared	
   with	
   that	
   of	
   similar	
   democracies,	
   one	
   of	
   the	
   most	
   restrictive	
  
with	
  respect	
  to	
  these	
  practices.	
  vii	
  France	
  identifies	
  the	
  principle	
  of	
  “laicité”	
  as	
  one	
  of	
  the	
  pillars	
  of	
  
their	
   society	
   and	
   argues	
   the	
   ban	
   is	
   necessary	
   to	
   safeguard	
   this	
   secularism.	
   The	
   principle	
   of	
  
secularism	
  however	
  only	
  applies	
  to	
  public	
  institutions	
  to	
  assure	
  neutrality	
  from	
  representatives	
  
of	
   public	
   authorities	
   in	
   the	
   exercise	
   of	
   their	
   duties.	
   It	
   can	
   also	
   only	
   be	
   binding	
   on	
   society	
   or	
  
individuals	
  by	
  virtue	
  of	
  the	
  specific	
  demands	
  on	
  certain	
  public	
  services,	
  as	
  for	
  example	
  the	
  ban	
  in	
  
(public)	
  schools.	
  viii	
  	
  
	
  
The	
  need	
  to	
  identify	
  individuals’	
  faces	
  is	
  the	
  core	
  of	
  the	
  public	
  security	
  argument,	
  but	
  a	
  ban	
  in	
  
all	
   public	
   areas	
   is	
   disproportionate	
   to	
   the	
   aim	
   pursued,	
   especially	
   in	
   light	
   of	
   the	
   far-­‐reaching	
  
implications	
  it	
  has	
  for	
  individuals	
  to	
  express	
  their	
  religious	
  beliefs.	
  ix	
  In	
  the	
  case	
  of	
  Ahmet	
  Arslan	
  
and	
  others	
  v.	
  Turkey	
  the	
  ECtHR	
  ruled	
  that	
  the	
  limitations	
  imposed	
  on	
  the	
  followers	
  of	
  a	
  religious	
  
minority,	
   who	
   were	
   sanctioned	
   for	
   wearing	
   their	
   religious	
   attire	
   in	
   the	
   streets,	
   were	
   not	
  
proportionate	
   to	
   the	
   legitimate	
   aims	
   (public	
   safety	
   and	
   public	
   order)	
   pursued	
   by	
   the	
   Turkish	
  
authorities.	
  x	
  Existing	
  provisions	
  in	
  France,	
  based	
  on	
  public	
  security	
  and	
  anti-­‐fraud	
  consideration,	
  
already	
  require	
  people	
  to	
  identify	
  themselves	
  at	
  particular	
  times	
  and	
  thus	
  to	
  uncover	
  their	
  faces.	
  
xi	
  Also,	
  insofar,	
  no	
  particular	
  public	
  security	
  problems	
  have	
  been	
  associated	
  with	
  the	
  Burqa,	
  or	
  
Hijab,	
  as	
  such.	
  If	
  limited	
  to	
  situations	
  where	
  accurate	
  identification	
  is	
  of	
  crucial	
  importance	
  (e.g.	
  
court	
  hearings,	
  airport	
  safety	
  checks,	
  etc.),	
  a	
  ban	
  would	
  be	
  proportionate	
  to	
  the	
  measures	
  to	
  be	
  
achieved.	
  xii	
  	
  
	
  
Whereas	
  the	
  claim	
  of	
  gender	
  equality	
  may	
  be	
  justified	
  in	
  certain	
  cases,	
  the	
  complete	
  ban	
  of	
  the	
  
Burqa	
  may	
  actually	
  aggravate	
  the	
  situation.	
  xiii	
  It	
  could	
  further	
  restrict	
  the	
  women's	
  freedom	
  by	
  
tying	
   them	
   to	
   their	
   private	
   homes.	
   xiv	
   In	
   Şahin	
   v	
   Turkey,	
   the	
   ECtHR	
   stated	
   that	
   banning	
  
headscarves	
  would	
  protect	
  the	
  freedoms	
  of	
  those	
  who	
  do	
  not	
  wish	
  to	
  wear	
  a	
  headscarf.	
   xv	
   The	
  
ECtHR	
  will	
  however	
  need	
  to	
  consider	
  the	
  possibility	
  that	
  women	
  might	
  legitimately	
  feel	
  the	
  need	
  
to	
  wear	
  the	
  headscarf	
  as	
  part	
  of	
  their	
  personal	
  duty	
  to	
  their	
  faith	
  and	
  not	
  due	
  to	
  coercion	
  from	
  
outside.	
   Thus,	
   as	
   a	
   consequence	
   of	
   the	
   ban,	
   women	
   might	
   be	
   derived	
   from	
   the	
   possibility	
   to	
  
exercise	
  their	
  personal	
  freedom.	
  
 	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  
i	
  European	
  Convention	
  on	
  Human	
  Rights.	
  Available	
  at:	
  http://www.hri.org/docs/ECHR50.html	
  	
  [Visited:	
  November	
  6,	
  
2010].	
  
ii	
  Projet	
  de	
  loi.	
  Available	
  at:	
  http://www.senat.fr/petite-­‐loi-­‐ameli/2009-­‐2010/700.html	
  	
  [Visited:	
  November	
  6,	
  2010].	
  
iii	
  ECLJ.	
  Legal	
  Analysis	
  Regarding	
  the	
  "Legitimacy	
  of	
  French	
  Proposal	
  to	
  Ban	
  the	
  Burqa	
  in	
  Public	
  Sphere.	
  Available	
  at:	
  
http://www.eclj.org/Releases/Read.aspx?GUID=9bf429be-­‐368e-­‐463b-­‐831e-­‐5f0328b0ff00&s=eur	
  	
  [Visited:	
  November	
  8,	
  
2010].	
  
iv	
  	
  Leyla	
  Şahin	
  v.	
  Turkey.	
  2004.	
  European	
  Court	
  of	
  Human	
  Rights.	
  Para	
  77.	
  
v	
  Boustead	
  K.	
  French	
  headscarf	
  law	
  before	
  ECHR.	
  Available	
  at:	
  
http://www.law.fsu.edu/journals/transnational/backissues/issue16_2.html	
  	
  [Visited:	
  November	
  9,	
  2010].	
  
vi	
  Conseil	
  d'État.	
  Étude	
  relative	
  aux	
  possibilités	
  juridiques	
  d’interdiction	
  du	
  port	
  du	
  voile	
  intégral.	
  Available	
  at:	
  
http://www.conseil-­‐etat.fr/cde/node.php?articleid=2000	
  [Visited:	
  November	
  6,	
  2010].	
  
vii	
  Ibidem	
  
viii	
  Ibidem	
  
ix	
  L.	
  Peroni.	
  Would	
  a	
  Niqab	
  and	
  Burqa	
  ban	
  pass	
  the	
  Strasbourg	
  test.	
  Strasbourg	
  Observers.	
  Available	
  at:	
  
http://strasbourgobservers.com/2010/05/04/burqa-­‐and-­‐niqab-­‐ban/#more-­‐166	
  	
  [Visited:	
  November	
  6,	
  2010].	
  
x	
  Ahmet	
  Arslan	
  and	
  others	
  v.	
  Turkey.	
  2010.	
  ECtHR.	
  
xi	
  Conseil	
  d'État.	
  Idem.	
  
xii	
  E.M.	
  Krockow.	
  Open	
  Think	
  Tank	
  Article	
  "The	
  Burqa	
  Ban	
  -­‐	
  Motiviations,	
  Justifications	
  and	
  Likely	
  Consequences".	
  Atlantic	
  
Community.	
  	
  Available	
  at:	
  http://www.atlantic-­‐community.org/index/articles/view/The_Burqa_Ban_-­‐
_Motiviations,_Justifications_and_Likely_Consequences	
  	
  [Visited:	
  November	
  7,	
  2010].	
  
xiii	
  T.	
  Hoopes.	
  The	
  Leyla	
  Şahin	
  v.	
  Turkey	
  Case	
  Before	
  the	
  European	
  Court	
  of	
  Human	
  Rights.	
  Chinese	
  Journal	
  of	
  International	
  
Law.	
  Available	
  at:	
  http://chinesejil.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/3/719.full	
  [Visited:	
  November	
  10,	
  2010].	
  
xiv	
  Ibidem	
  
xv	
  Leyla	
  Sahin	
  v.	
  Turkey.	
  2004.	
  European	
  Court	
  of	
  Human	
  Rights.	
  Para	
  111.	
  

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Memo: Law & Governance: France's burqa ban

  • 1. Hertie  School  of  Governance                    Class   U5  Law  and  Governance   Convenor   Professor  Dr.  Nico  Krisch          Student   Steven  Lauwers                    Date   11.11.2010     MEMO   2:  DOES   FRANCE’S   LAW   TO   BAN   THE   ISLAMIC   HIJAB,  OR   BURQA,  IN   PUBLIC   SPACE   VIOLATE  THE  EUROPEAN  CONVENTION  ON  HUMAN  RIGHTS  (‘ECHR’)?                    (word  count:  915)     Introduction:     Article  9,  §1  of  the  ECHR  guarantees  the  “freedom  of  thought,  conscience  and  religion;  (…)  and  in   public  or  private,  to  manifest  his  religion  or  belief,  in  worship,  teaching,  practice  and  observance.”   This  freedom  is  however  limited  in  §2,  as  it  is  “subject  only  to  such  limitations  as  are  prescribed  by   law  and  are  necessary  in  a  democratic  society  in  the  interests  of  public  safety,  for  the  protection  of   public  order,  health  or  morals,  or  the  protection  of  the  rights  and  freedoms  of  others.”  i  The  memo   will  explain  why  France’s  law  violates  Article  9  of  the  ECHR.       Interference:  Does  France’s  law  interfere  with  Article  9  of  the  ECHR?   -­  Yes.  France’s  new  law  states  that  “(i)n  a  public  space,  it  is  prohibited  to  wear  clothing  that  covers   the  face”.  ii    This  law  thus  applies  to  the  Burqa  (or  Hijab):  a  garment  worn  by  women  in  some   Islamic  traditions  to  cover  their  bodies  and  face  in  public  spaces.  While  some  might  argue  the   Burqa,   or   Hijab,   is   “not   a   religious   symbol”,   depending   on   how   one   interprets   the   Koran,   it   is   undeniably  associated  with  Islam  religion.  iii     Legitimacy:  Is  the  measure  prescribed  by  law?   -­  Yes.  If  we  refer  to  the  case  Şahin  v  Turkey,  law  can  be  defined  as  “regulatory  measures  taken  by   professional   regulatory   bodies”   and   “the   provision   in   force”   iv.   The   Lower   House   of   Parliament   approved  the  legislation  in  September  this  year  and  the  (preliminary)  law  was  already  published   in  Le  Journal  Officiel  on  March  17,  2004.  The  European  Court  for  Human  Rights  (‘ECtHR’)  may   even  consider  that  extensive  coverage  of  the  law  in  the  international  press  as  a  source  of  basic   due  process  notification.  v     Suitability:  Does  the  measure  have  a  legitimate  aim?   -­  Yes.  §2  of  Article  9  of  the  ECHR  explains  under  what  circumstances  the  states  may  interfere   with   religious   freedom.   France   argues   the   ban   is   necessary   in   their   democratic   society   to   safeguard  the  principle  of  secularism  (“laicité”),  which  protects  government  affairs  from  religious   involvement   -­‐   and   the   other   way   around.   Also,   in   order   to   uphold   public   safety   in   society,   a   person  in  a  public  space  has  to  be  identifiable  at  all  times.  Finally,  as  the  Burqa  is  associated  with   the  suppression  of  women,  the  ban  will  enhance  gender  equality  in  society.    
  • 2. Necessity:  Is  the  measure  proportionate  to  the  aim  to  be  achieved?   -­   No.   Article   9   of   the   ECHR   protects   the   individual   right   of   freedom   of   religion;   it   is   thus   important   that   the   interference   of   the   French   government   with   Article   9   of   the   ECHR   is   well-­‐ balanced  with  an  individual’s  need  and/or  right  of  freedom  of  religion  and/or  the  manifestation   of  his/her  religion.  The  following  analysis  will  show  that  the  measure  is  disproportionate  to  the   aim  to  be  achieved.       A  first  important  step  is  to  define  what  margin  of  appreciation  the  ECtHR  would  grant  France  to   interfere   with   Article   9   of   the   ECHR.   While   France   has   valid   concerns   for   the   ban   (ref.   ‘Suitability’),   “many   legal   provisions   already   serve   to   ban   or   in   certain   cases   deter   people   from   wearing  the  full  veil  (…).”  vi  France  has  a  wide  range  of  individual  prescriptions  or  prohibitions,   making   its   legislation,   compared   with   that   of   similar   democracies,   one   of   the   most   restrictive   with  respect  to  these  practices.  vii  France  identifies  the  principle  of  “laicité”  as  one  of  the  pillars  of   their   society   and   argues   the   ban   is   necessary   to   safeguard   this   secularism.   The   principle   of   secularism  however  only  applies  to  public  institutions  to  assure  neutrality  from  representatives   of   public   authorities   in   the   exercise   of   their   duties.   It   can   also   only   be   binding   on   society   or   individuals  by  virtue  of  the  specific  demands  on  certain  public  services,  as  for  example  the  ban  in   (public)  schools.  viii       The  need  to  identify  individuals’  faces  is  the  core  of  the  public  security  argument,  but  a  ban  in   all   public   areas   is   disproportionate   to   the   aim   pursued,   especially   in   light   of   the   far-­‐reaching   implications  it  has  for  individuals  to  express  their  religious  beliefs.  ix  In  the  case  of  Ahmet  Arslan   and  others  v.  Turkey  the  ECtHR  ruled  that  the  limitations  imposed  on  the  followers  of  a  religious   minority,   who   were   sanctioned   for   wearing   their   religious   attire   in   the   streets,   were   not   proportionate   to   the   legitimate   aims   (public   safety   and   public   order)   pursued   by   the   Turkish   authorities.  x  Existing  provisions  in  France,  based  on  public  security  and  anti-­‐fraud  consideration,   already  require  people  to  identify  themselves  at  particular  times  and  thus  to  uncover  their  faces.   xi  Also,  insofar,  no  particular  public  security  problems  have  been  associated  with  the  Burqa,  or   Hijab,  as  such.  If  limited  to  situations  where  accurate  identification  is  of  crucial  importance  (e.g.   court  hearings,  airport  safety  checks,  etc.),  a  ban  would  be  proportionate  to  the  measures  to  be   achieved.  xii       Whereas  the  claim  of  gender  equality  may  be  justified  in  certain  cases,  the  complete  ban  of  the   Burqa  may  actually  aggravate  the  situation.  xiii  It  could  further  restrict  the  women's  freedom  by   tying   them   to   their   private   homes.   xiv   In   Şahin   v   Turkey,   the   ECtHR   stated   that   banning   headscarves  would  protect  the  freedoms  of  those  who  do  not  wish  to  wear  a  headscarf.   xv   The   ECtHR  will  however  need  to  consider  the  possibility  that  women  might  legitimately  feel  the  need   to  wear  the  headscarf  as  part  of  their  personal  duty  to  their  faith  and  not  due  to  coercion  from   outside.   Thus,   as   a   consequence   of   the   ban,   women   might   be   derived   from   the   possibility   to   exercise  their  personal  freedom.  
  • 3.                                                                                                                 i  European  Convention  on  Human  Rights.  Available  at:  http://www.hri.org/docs/ECHR50.html    [Visited:  November  6,   2010].   ii  Projet  de  loi.  Available  at:  http://www.senat.fr/petite-­‐loi-­‐ameli/2009-­‐2010/700.html    [Visited:  November  6,  2010].   iii  ECLJ.  Legal  Analysis  Regarding  the  "Legitimacy  of  French  Proposal  to  Ban  the  Burqa  in  Public  Sphere.  Available  at:   http://www.eclj.org/Releases/Read.aspx?GUID=9bf429be-­‐368e-­‐463b-­‐831e-­‐5f0328b0ff00&s=eur    [Visited:  November  8,   2010].   iv    Leyla  Şahin  v.  Turkey.  2004.  European  Court  of  Human  Rights.  Para  77.   v  Boustead  K.  French  headscarf  law  before  ECHR.  Available  at:   http://www.law.fsu.edu/journals/transnational/backissues/issue16_2.html    [Visited:  November  9,  2010].   vi  Conseil  d'État.  Étude  relative  aux  possibilités  juridiques  d’interdiction  du  port  du  voile  intégral.  Available  at:   http://www.conseil-­‐etat.fr/cde/node.php?articleid=2000  [Visited:  November  6,  2010].   vii  Ibidem   viii  Ibidem   ix  L.  Peroni.  Would  a  Niqab  and  Burqa  ban  pass  the  Strasbourg  test.  Strasbourg  Observers.  Available  at:   http://strasbourgobservers.com/2010/05/04/burqa-­‐and-­‐niqab-­‐ban/#more-­‐166    [Visited:  November  6,  2010].   x  Ahmet  Arslan  and  others  v.  Turkey.  2010.  ECtHR.   xi  Conseil  d'État.  Idem.   xii  E.M.  Krockow.  Open  Think  Tank  Article  "The  Burqa  Ban  -­‐  Motiviations,  Justifications  and  Likely  Consequences".  Atlantic   Community.    Available  at:  http://www.atlantic-­‐community.org/index/articles/view/The_Burqa_Ban_-­‐ _Motiviations,_Justifications_and_Likely_Consequences    [Visited:  November  7,  2010].   xiii  T.  Hoopes.  The  Leyla  Şahin  v.  Turkey  Case  Before  the  European  Court  of  Human  Rights.  Chinese  Journal  of  International   Law.  Available  at:  http://chinesejil.oxfordjournals.org/content/5/3/719.full  [Visited:  November  10,  2010].   xiv  Ibidem   xv  Leyla  Sahin  v.  Turkey.  2004.  European  Court  of  Human  Rights.  Para  111.