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HULL FORM AND
GEOMETRY
Chapter 2
Intro to Ships and Naval Engineering (2.1)
Factors which influence design:
– Size
– Speed
– Payload
– Range
– Seakeeping
– Maneuverability
– Stability
– Special Capabilities (Amphib, Aviation, ...)
Compromise is required!
Classification of Ship by Usage
• Merchant Ship
• Naval & Coast Guard Vessel
• Recreational Vessel
• Utility Tugs
• Research & Environmental Ship
• Ferries
Categorizing Ships (2.2)
Methods of Classification:
Physical Support:
 Hydrostatic
 Hydrodynamic
 Aerostatic (Aerodynamic)
Categorizing Ships
Classification of Ship by Support Type
Aerostatic Support
- ACV
- SES (Captured Air Bubble)
Hydrodynamic Support (Bernoulli)
- Hydrofoil
- Planning Hull
Hydrostatic Support (Archimedes)
- Conventional Ship
- Catamaran
- SWATH
- Deep Displacement
Submarine
- Submarine
- ROV
Aerostatic Support
Vessel rides on a cushion of air. Lighter
weight, higher speeds, smaller load capacity.
– Air Cushion Vehicles - LCAC: Opens up 75% of
littoral coastlines, versus about 12% for
displacement
– Surface Effect Ships - SES: Fast, directionally
stable, but not amphibious
Aerostatic Support
Supported by cushion of air
ACV
hull material : rubber
propeller : placed on the deck
amphibious operation
SES
side hull : rigid wall(steel or FRP)
bow : skirt
propulsion system : placed under the water
water jet propulsion
supercavitating propeller
(not amphibious operation)
Aerostatic Support
English Channel Ferry - Hovercraft
Aerostatic Support
E
SES Ferry
NYC SES
Fireboat
Aerostatic Support
Hydrodynamic Support
Supported by moving water. At slower
speeds, they are hydrostatically supported
– Planing Vessels - Hydrodynamics pressure
developed on the hull at high speeds to
support the vessel. Limited loads, high power
requirements.
– Hydrofoils - Supported by underwater foils, like
wings on an aircraft. Dangerous in heavy seas.
No longer used by USN.
Planing Hull
- supported by the hydrodynamic pressure developed under a hull at high speed
- “V” or flat type shape
- Commonly used in pleasure boat, patrol boat, missile boat, racing boat
Hydrodynamic Support
Destriero
Hydrofoil Ship
- supported by a hydrofoil, like wing on an aircraft
- fully submerged hydrofoil ship
- surface piercing hydrofoil ship
Hydrodynamic Support
Hydrofoil Ferry
Hydrodynamic Support
Hydrodynamic Support
Hydrostatic Support
Displacement Ships Float by displacing
their own weight in water
– Includes nearly all traditional military and
cargo ships and 99% of ships in this course
– Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull ships
(SWATH)
– Submarines (when surfaced)
Hydrostatic Support
The Ship is supported by its buoyancy.
(Archimedes Principle)
Archimedes Principle : An object partially
or fully submerged in a fluid will experience a
resultant vertical force equal in magnitude to
the weight of the volume of fluid displaced by
the object.
The buoyant force of a ship is calculated from the
displaced volume by the ship.

 g
FB 
Mathematical Form of Archimedes Principle
Hydrostatic Support
S
B
F 

Resultant
Buoyancy
Resultant Weight
B
F
S

)
object(ft
by the
volume
Displaced
:
/s)
on(32.17ft
accelerati
nal
Gravitatio
:
g
)
/ft
s
(lb
fluid
of
Density
:
force(lb)
buouant
resultant
the
of
Magnitude
:
3
4
2


B
F

Hydrostatic Support
Displacement ship
- conventional type of ship
- carries high payload
- low speed
SWATH
- small waterplane area twin hull (SWATH)
- low wave-making resistance
- excellent roll stability
- large open deck
- disadvantage : deep draft and cost
Catamaran/Trimaran
- twin hull
- other characteristics are similar to the SWATH
Submarine
Hydrostatic Support
Hydrostatic Support
Hydrostatic Support
Hydrostatic Support
Hydrostatic Support
Hydrostatic Support
Hydrostatic Support
Hydrostatic Support
Hull form and geometry.pptx
2.3 Ship Hull Form and Geometry
The ship is a 3-dimensional shape:
Data in x, y, and z directions is necessary to represent
the ship hull.
Table of Offsets
Lines Drawings:
- body plan (front View)
- shear plan (side view)
- half breadth plan (top view)
Hull Form Representation
Lines Drawings:
Traditional graphical representation of the ship’s
hull form…… “Lines”
Half-Breadth
Sheer Plan
Body Plan
Hull Form Representation
Lines Plan
Half-Breadth
Plan
(Top)
Sheer Plan
(Side)
Body Plan
(Front / End)
Figure 2.3 - The Half-Breadth Plan
Half-Breadth Plan
- Intersection of planes (waterlines) parallel to the baseline (keel).
Figure 2.4 - The Sheer Plan
Sheer Plan
-Intersection of planes (buttock lines) parallel to the centerline plane
Figure 2.6 - The Body Plan
Body Plan
- Intersection of planes to define section line
- Sectional lines show the true shape of the hull form
- Forward sections from amidships : R.H.S.
- Aft sections from amid ship : L.H.S.
• Used to convert graphical information to a
numerical representation of a three
dimensional body.
• Lists the distance from the center plane to the
outline of the hull at each station and waterline.
• There is enough information in the Table of
Offsets to produce all three lines plans.
Table of Offsets (2.4)
Table of Offsets
The distances from the centerplane are called the
offsets or half-breadth distances.
2.5 Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics
LOA(length over all ) : Overall length of the vessel
DWL(design waterline) : Water line where the ship is designed to float
Stations : parallel planes from forward to aft, evenly spaced (like
bread).Normally an odd number to ensure an even number of blocks.
FP(forward perpendicular) : imaginary vertical line where the bow intersects
the DWL
AP(aft perpendicular) : imaginary vertical line located at either the rudder
stock or intersection of the stern with DWL
LOA
Lpp
AP
FP
DWL
Shear
Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics
Lpp (length between perpendicular) : horizontal distance from FP and AP
Amidships : the point midway between FP and AP ( ) Midships Station
Shear : longitudinal curvature given to deck
LOA
Lpp
AP
FP
DWL
Shear
Beam: B Camber
Depth: D
Draft: T
Freeboard
WL
K
C
L
View of midship section
Depth(D): vertical distance measured from keel to deck taken
at amidships and deck edge in case the ship is cambered on
the deck.
Draft(T) : vertical distance from keel to the water surface
Beam(B) : transverse distance across the each section
Breadth(B) : transverse distance measured amidships
Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics
Beam: B Camber
Depth: D
Draft: T
Freeboard
WL
K
C
L
View of midship section
Freeboard : distance from depth to draft (reserve buoyancy)
Keel (K) : locate the bottom of the ship
Camber : transverse curvature given to deck
Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics
Flare Tumblehome
Flare : outward curvature of ship’s hull surface above the waterline
Tumble Home : opposite of flare
Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics
Example Problem
• Label the following:
x
y
z
C. (translation)
_____
A.(translation)
_____
B. (translation)
____
E. (rotation)
_____/____
D. (rotation)
____/____/____
F. (rotation)
___
G. Viewed from
this direction
____ Plan
H. Viewed from
this direction
_____ Plan
I. Viewed from
this direction
____-_______ Plan
J. _______ Line
K. _______ Line
L. _____line
M. Horizontal ref plane for
vertical measurements
________
N. Forward ref plane for
longitudinal measurements
_______ _____________
O. Aft ref plane for
longitudinal measurements
___ _____________
P. Middle ref plane for
longitudinal measurements
_________
Q. Longitudinal ref plane for
transverse measurements
__________
R. Distance between “N.” & “O.”
___=______ _______ ______________
S. Width of the ship
____
Example Answer
• Label the following:
x
y
z
C. (translation)
Heave
A.(translation)
Surge
B. (translation)
Sway
E. (rotation)
Pitch/Trim
D. (rotation)
Roll/List/Heel
F. (rotation)
Yaw
G. Viewed from
this direction
Body Plan
H. Viewed from
this direction
Sheer Plan
I. Viewed from
this direction
Half-Breadth Plan
J. Section Line
K. Buttock Line
L. Waterline
M. Horizontal ref plane for
vertical measurements
Baseline
N. Forward ref plane for
longitudinal measurements
Forward Perpendicular
O. Aft ref plane for
longitudinal measurements
Aft Perpendicular
P. Middle ref plane for
longitudinal measurements
Amidships
Q. Longitudinal ref plane for
transverse measurements
Centerline
R. Distance between “N.” & “O.”
LBP=Length between Perpendiculars
S. Width of the ship
Beam
2.6 Centroids
Centroid
- Area
- Mass
- Volume
- Force
- Buoyancy(LCB or TCB)
- Floatation(LCF or TCF)
Apply the Weighed Average Scheme or  Moment =0
Centroid – The geometric center of a body.
Center of Mass - A “single point” location of the mass.
… Better known as the Center of Gravity (CG).
CG and Centroids are only in the same place for uniform
(homogenous) mass!
Centroids
Centroids
a1
a2
a3
an
y1
y2
y3 yn
Y
X
• Centroids and Center of Mass can be found by
using a weighted average.
 







1
i i
1
i i
i
ave
a
a
y
y









3
2
1
3
3
2
2
1
1
ave
a
a
a
a
y
a
y
a
y
y
Centroid of Area







 



T
i
n
i
i
T
n
i
i
i
A
a
x
A
a
x
x
1
1







 



T
i
n
i
i
T
n
i
i
i
A
a
y
A
a
y
y
1
1
y1 y2
y3
x1
x2
x3
x
y
x
y
1
a 2
a 3
a
n
i
i
a
a
a
a
x







 2
1
T
i
A
area
al
differenti
:
center
area
al
differenti
to
axis
-
x
from
distance
:
y
center
area
al
differenti
to
axis
-
y
from
distance
:
Centroid of Area Example
3ft²
8ft
²
5ft
²
2 2
3
2
4
7
axis
-
y
from
125
.
5
16
82
8
5
3
7
8
4
5
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
A
a
x
A
a
x
x
T
i
n
i
i
T
n
i
i
i

















 



.....
3
1
3
1








 



T
i
i
i
T
i
i
i
A
a
y
A
a
y
y
x
y
x
y
Centroid of Area
x
x
y b
h
dx
x
AT
Also moment created by total area AT will produce a moment w.r.t y axis
and can be written below. (recall Moment=force×moment arm)
x1
x
A
M T 

Since the moment created by differential area dA is , total moment
which is called 1st Moment of Area is calculated by integrating the whole area as,

 xdA
M
xdA
dM 
The two moments are identical so that centroid of the geometry is
T
A
xdA
x

 This eqn. will be used to determine LCF in this Chapter.
b
x
hb
hbx
hb
A
hdx
x
A
xdA
x
T
b
x
x
T
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1










Proof
2.7 Center of Floatation & Center of Buoyancy
LCF: centroid of water plane from the amidships
TCF : centroid of water plane from the centerline
In this case of ship,
- LCF is at aft of amidship.
- TCF is on the centerline.
Amidships
LCF
TCF
centerline
- Centroid of water plane (LCF varies depending on draft.)
- Pivot point for list and trim of floating ship
Center of Floatation
The Center of Flotation changes as the ship lists, trims, or changes
draft because as the shape of the waterplane changes so does the
location of the centroid.
• LCB: Longitudinal center of buoyancy from amidships
• KB : Vertical center of buoyancy from the Keel
• TCB : Transverse center of buoyancy from the centerline
Center
line
Base line
TCB
LCB
KB
Center of Buoyancy
- Centroid of displaced water volume
- Buoyant force act through this
centroid.
Center of Buoyancy moves when the ship lists, trims or changes draft
because the shape of the submerged body has changed thus causing the
centroid to move.
Center of Buoyancy : B
2 2
1
1
2
- Buoyancy force (Weight of Barge)
- LCB : at midship
- TCB : on centerline
- KB : T/2
- Reserve Buoyancy Force
WL
1
1
1 1
T/2
C
L
centerline
B
B
WL
2.8 Fundamental Geometric Calculation
Why numerical integration?
- Ship is complex and its shape cannot usually be represented by a
mathematical equation.
- A numerical scheme, therefore, should be used to calculate the ship’s
geometrical properties.
- Uses the coordinates of a curve (e.g. Table of Offsets) to integrate
Which numerical method ?
- Rectangle rule
- Trapezoidal rule
- Simpson’s 1st rule (Used in this course)
- Simpson’s 2nd rule
Rectangle rule
Simpson’s rule
Trapezoidal rule
- Uses 2 data points
- Assumes linear curve : y=mx+b
Total Area = A1+A2+A3
= s/2 (y1+2y2+2y3+y4)
x1 x2 x3 x4
s s s
y1
y2 y3
y4
A1 A2 A3
A1=s/2*(y1+y2)
A2=s/2*(y2+y3)
A3=s/2*(y3+y4)
Trapezoidal Rule
s = ∆x = x2-x1 = x3-x2 = x4-x3
- Uses 3 data points
- Assume 2nd order polynomial curve
Area : )
4
(
3
3
2
1
3
1
y
y
y
x
dx
y
dA
A
x
x





 

Simpson’s 1st Rule
x1 x3
y(x)=ax²+bx+c
x
y
A
dx
x1 x2 x3
s
y1 y2 y3
x
y
A
dA
Mathematical Integration Numerical Integration
x2
s
(S=∆x)
Simpson’s 1st Rule
)
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
(
3
)
4
(
3
)
4
(
3
)
4
(
3
)
4
(
3
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
9
8
7
7
6
5
5
4
3
3
2
1
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
s
y
y
y
s
y
y
y
s
y
y
y
s
y
y
y
s
A





















x1 x2 x3
s
y1
y2 y3
x
y
x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9
y4
y5
y6
y7
y8 y9
Gen. Eqn.
Odd number
Evenly spaced
)
4
2
...
2
4
(
3
A 1
2
3
2
1 n
n
n y
y
y
y
y
y
x







 

Application of Numerical Integration
Application
- Waterplane Area
- Sectional Area
- Submerged Volume
- LCF
- VCB
- LCB
Scheme
- Simpson’s 1st Rule
2.9 Numerical Calculation
Calculation Steps
1. Start with a sketch of what you are about to integrate.
2. Show the differential element you are using.
3. Properly label your axis and drawing.
4. Write out the generalized calculus equation written in
the same symbols you used to label your picture.
5. Convert integral in Simpson’s equation.
6. Solve by substituting each number into the equation.
Section 2.9
See your “Equations and
Conversions” Sheet
Waterplane Area
– AWP=2y(x)dx; where integral is half
breadths by station
Sectional Area
– Asect=2y(z)dz; where integral is half
breadths by waterline
Z
Y
Half-Breadths (feet)
0
Water
lines
y(z)
dz=Waterline Spacing
(Body Plan)
dx=Station Spacing
Half-
Breadths
(feet)
X
Y
Stations
y(x)
0
(Half-Breadth Plan)
0
Section 2.9
See your “Equations and
Conversions” Sheet
Submerged Volume
– VS=Asectdx; where integral is
sectional areas by station
Longitudinal Center of Floatation
– LCF=(2/AWP)*xydx; where
integral is product of distance
from FP & half breadths by station
X
Asect
Sectional
Areas
(feet²)
Stations
A(x)
0
dx=Station Spacing
X
Y
Half-
Breadths
(feet)
Stations
y(x)
dx=Station Spacing
0
(Half-Breadth Plan)
x
Waterplane Area
y
x
dx
FP
AP
y(x)
 


area
Lpp
WP dx
x
y
dA
A
0
)
(
2
2
ft)
(
width
al
differenti
)
ft
(
at
breadth)
-
(half
offset
)
(
)
(
area
al
differenti
)
(
area
waterplane
2
2




dx
x
y
x
y
ft
dA
ft
AWP
Factor for symmetric
waterplane area
Waterplane Area
Generalized Simpson’s Equation
 
n
n
n
WP y
y
y
y
y
x
A 






 
 1
2
2
1
0 4
2
..
2
4
y
3
1
2
stations
between
distance

x
y
x
FP AP
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x

Sectional Area
Sectional Area : Numerical integration of half-breadth
as a function of draft
WL
z
y
dz
y(z)
T
 


area
T
dz
z
y
dA
A
0
sect )
(
2
2
)
width(
al
differenti
)
z(
at
breadth)
-
f
offset(hal
)
(
)
area(
al
differenti
)
(
to
up
area
sectional
2
2
sec
ft
dz
ft
y
z
y
ft
dA
ft
z
A t




Sectional Area
Generalized Simpson’s equation
lines
btwn water
distance

z
 
n
n
n
area
T
t
y
y
y
y
y
z
dz
z
y
dA
A












 
1
2
2
1
0
0
sec
4
2
..
2
4
y
3
1
2
)
(
2
2
z
y
WL
T
0
2
4
6
8
z
Submerged Volume : Longitudinal Integration
Submerged Volume : Integration of sectional area over the length of ship
Scheme:
z
x
y
)
(x
As
Submerged Volume
Sectional Area Curve
Calculus equation
 




volume
L
s
submerged
pp
dx
x
A
dV
V
0
sect )
(
x
As
FP AP
dx
)
(
sec x
A t
Generalized equation
 
n
n
s y
y
y
y
x 






 1
2
1
0 4
..
2
4
y
3
1
stations
between
distance

x
Asection, Awp , and submerged volume are examples of
how Simpson’s rule is used to find area and volume…
… The next slides show how it can be used to find the
centroid of a given area.
The only difference in the procedure is the addition of another
term, the distance of the individual area segments from the
y-axis…the value of x.
The values of x will be the progressive sum of the ∆x… if ∆x is
the width of the sections, say 10, then x0=0, x1=10, x2=20,x3=30…
and so on.
Longitudinal Center of Floatation(LCF)
LCF
- Centroid of waterplane area
- Distance from reference point to center of floatation
- Referenced to amidships or FP
- Sign convention of LCF
+
+
-
FP
WL
y
x
dx
FP
AP
y(x)
Weighted Average of Variable X (i.e. distance from FP)







  total
piece
small
value
X
X
variable
of
Average
X
all
WA
WA A
dx
x
xy
A
xdA
x

 

)
(
2
2
Moment Relation
dA
T
T A
dx
x
xy
A
xdA
x

 

)
(
Recall
Longitudinal Center of Floatation (LCF)

 xdA
My
:
area
of
moment
First
y
x
dx
FP
AP
y(x)

 



Lpp
WP
area
Lpp
WP
WP
dx
x
y
x
A
dx
A
x
xy
A
xdA
LCF
0
0
)
(
2
)
(
2
LCF by weighted averaged scheme or Moment relation
LCF
Longitudinal Center of Floatation(LCF)
Generalized Simpson’s Equation
 
n
n
n
n
L
WP
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
x
dx
x
y
x
A
LCF
pp











1
1
2
2
1
1
0
0
WP
0
4
..
2
4
3
1
A
2
)
(
2
stations
between
distance

x
y
x
FP AP
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x

x1
x2
x3
x4
x5
x6
....
,
2
,
,
0 3
2
1
0 




 x
x
x
x
x
x
Longitudinal Center of Floatation(LCF)
It’s often easier to put all the information in tabular form on
an Excel spreadsheet:
Station Dist from
FP
(x value)
Half-
Breadth
(y value)
Moment
x y
Simpson
Multiplier
Product of
Moment x
Multiplier
0 0.0 0.39 0.0 1 0.0
1 81.6 12.92 1054.3 4 4217.1
2 163.2 20.97 3422.3 2 6844.6
3 244.8 21.71 5314.6 4 21258.4
4 326.4 12.58 4106.1 1 4106.1
36426.2
Remember, this gives only part of the equation!
….You still need the “2/Awp x 1/3 Dx” part!
Dx here is 81.6 ft
Awp would be given
“2” because you’re dealing with a half-breadth section
Hull form and geometry.pptx
This is similar to the LCF in that it is a CENTROID, but where LCF is the centroid
of the Awp, KB is the centroid of the submerged volume of the ship measured from
the keel…
Vertical Center of Buoyancy, KB
x
y
z
Awp
KB
where:
- Awp is the area of the waterplane at the distance z from the keel
- z is the distance of the Awp section from the x-axis
- dz is the spacing between the Awp sections, or Dz in Simpson’s Eq.


 dz
z
zA
KB
WP )
(
KB =1/3 dz [(1) (zo) (Awpo) + 4 (z1) (Awp1) + 2 (z2) (Awp2) +… + (zn) (Awpn) ]/
underwater hull volume
You can now put this into Simpson’s Equation:
Remember that the blue terms are what we have to add to make Simpson
work for KB.
Don’t forget to include them in your calculations!


 dz
z
zA
KB
WP )
(
This is EXACTLY the same as KB, only this time:
- Instead of taking measurements along the z-axis, you’re taking them from the x-axis
- Instead of using waterplane areas, you’re using section areas
- It’ll tell you how far back from the FP the center of buoyancy is.
Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy, LCB
x
y
z
where:
- Asect is the area of the section at the distance z from the forward perpendicular (FP)
- x is the distance of the Asect section from the y-axis
- dx is the spacing between the Asect sections, or Dx in Simpson’s Eq.
And FINALLY,…
LCB
Asection


 dx
x
xA
LCB
Sect )
(
LCB = 1/3 dx [(1) (xo) (Asect) + 4 (x1) (Asect 1) + 2 (x2) (Asect 2) +… + (xn) (Asect n) ] /
underwater hull volume
You can now put this into Simpson’s Equation:
Remember that the blue terms are what we have to add to make Simpson
work for LCB.
Don’t forget to include them in your calculations!


 dx
x
xA
LCB
Sect )
(
And that is Simpson’s Equations as they apply to this course!
The concept of finding the center of an area, LCF, or the center of a
volume, LCB or KB, are just centroid equations. Understand THAT
concept, and you can find the center of any shape or object!
Don’t waste your time memorizing all the formulas! Understand the basic
Simpson’s 1st, understand the concept behind the different uses, and you’ll
never be lost!
2.10 Curves of Forms
Curves of Forms
• A graph which shows all the geometric properties
of the ship as a function of ship’s mean draft
• Displacement, LCB, KB, TPI, WPA, LCF, MTI”,
KML and KMT are usually included.
Assumptions
• Ship has zero list and zero trim (upright, even keel)
• Ship is floating in 59°F salt water
Hull form and geometry.pptx
Curves of Forms
Displacement ( )
- assume ship is in the salt water with
- unit of displacement : long ton
1 long ton (LT) =2240 lb
LCB
- Longitudinal center of buoyancy
- Distance in feet from reference point (FP or Amidships)
VCB or KB
- Vertical center of buoyancy
- Distance in feet from the Keel

)
/ft
s
(
1.99
ρ 4
2
lb

Curves of Forms
• TPI (Tons per Inch Immersion)
- TPI : tons required to obtain one inch of parallel sinkage
in salt water
- Parallel sinkage: the ship changes its forward and aft
draft by the same amount so that no change in trim occurs
- Trim : difference between forward and aft draft of ship
- Unit of TPI : LT/inch
fwd
aft T
T 

Trim
Note: for parallel sinkage to occur, weight must be
added at center of flotation (F).
TPI
1 inch
- Assume side wall is vertical in one inch.
- TPI varies at the ship’s draft because waterplane area changes
at the draft
1 inch
Awp (sq. ft)
Curves of Forms
2240
LT
1
inches
12
1
inch
1
/
17
.
32
/
*
99
.
1
)
inch
1
)(
(
Awp
inch
1
inch
one
for
required
Volume
inch
1
inch
one
for
required
weight
2
4
2
2
lb
ft
s
ft
ft
s
lb
ft
g
salt





TPI
1 inch
Awp







inch
LT
420
)
(
Awp 2
ft
Curves of Forms
(LT)
removed
or
added
weight
of
amount
(inches)
draft
in
change


w
Tps

• Change in draft due to parallel sinkage
TPI
w
Tps 

Curves of Forms
• Moment/Trim 1 inch (MT1)
- MT1 : moment to change trim one inch
- The ship will rotate about the center of flotation
when a moment is applied to it.
- The moment can be produced by adding, removing or shifting
a weight some distance from F.
- Unit : LT-ft/inch
"
1
MT
l
w
Trim 

F
AP FP
1 inch
l
Change in Trim due to a Weight Addition/Removal
Curves of Forms
- When MT1” is due to a weight shift,
l is the distance the weight was moved
- When MT1” is due to a weight removal or addition,
l is the distance from the weight to F
LCF
New waterline
l
Curves of Forms
L
KM
•
- Distance in feet from the keel to the longitudinal metacenter
T
KM
•
- Distance in feet from the keel to the transverse metacenter
M
K
B
M
B
K
L
KM
T
KM
FP
AP
Example Problem
A YP has a forward draft of 9.5 ft and an aft
draft of 10.5ft. Using the YP Curves of Form,
provide the following information:
= _____ KMT=____
WPA= _____ LCB=____
LCF=_____ VCB=____
TPI=____ KML=____
MT1”=_________
Hull form and geometry.pptx
Hull form and geometry.pptx
Example Answer
A YP has a forward draft of 9.5 ft and an aft
draft of 10.5ft. Using the YP Curves of Form,
provide the following information:
 = 192.5×2 LT = 385 LT KMT = 192.5×.06 ft = 11.55 ft
WPA = 235×8.4 ft² = 1974 ft² LCB = 56 ft fm FP
LCF = 56 ft fm FP VCB = 125×.05 ft = 6.25 ft
TPI = 235×.02 LT/in = 4.7 LT/in KML = 112×1 ft = 112 ft
MT1” = 250×.141 ft-LT/in = 35.25 ft-LT/in
Backup Slides
Example Problem
A 40 foot boat has the following Table of Offsets
(Half Breadths in Feet):
What is the area of the waterplane at a draft of 4 feet?
H a lf-B re a d th s fro m C e n te rlin e in F e e t
S ta tio n N u m b e rs
W A T ER L IN E F P A P
(ft) 0 1 2 3 4
4 1.1 5.2 8.6 10.1 10.8
Example Answer
AWP=2y(x)dx
ydx=s/3*[1y0+4y1+…+2yn-2+4yn-1+1yn]
AWP=2*10ft/3*[1(1.1ft)+4(5.2ft)+2(8.6ft)+4(10.1ft)+1(10.8ft)]
AWP=602ft²
Y
X
y(x)
Station Spacing=dx
=40ft/4=10ft
0 Station 4
Half-
Breadths
(Feet)
Half-Breadths at 4 Foot Waterlines
Simpson’s Rule is used when a standard integration technique
is too involved or not easily performed.
• A curve that is not defined mathematically
• A curve that is irregular and not easily defined mathematically
It is an APPROXIMATION of the true integration
Simpson’s Rule
Given an integral in the following form:
Where y is a function of x, that is, y is the dependent variable defined by x, the integral can
be approximated by dividing the area under the curve into equally spaced sections, Dx, …
x
y = f(x)
y
y = f(x)
y
…and summing the individual areas.
Dx
 dx
x
y )
(
Dx
y = f(x)
y
x
Notice that:
Spacing is constant along x (the dx in the integral is the Dx here)
 The value of y (the height) depends on the location on x (y is a function of x, aka y= f(x)
 The area of the series of “rectangles” can be summed up
Simpson’s Rule breaks the curve into these sections and then
sums them up for total area under the curve
Simpson’s 1st Rule
Area = 1/3 Dx [yo + 4y1 + 2y2+…2y n-2 + 4y n-1 + yn]
where:
- n is an ODD number of stations
- Dx is the distance between stations
- yn is the value of y at the given station along x
- Repeats in a pattern of 1,4,2,4,2,4,2……2,4,1
Simpson’s 2nd Rule
Area = 3/8 Dx [yo + 3y1 + 3y2 + 2y3 + 3y4 +3y5 + 2y6 +… + 3y n-1 + yn]
where:
- n is an EVEN number of stations
- Repeats in a pattern 1,3,3,2,3,3,2,3,3,2,……2,3,3,1
Simpson’s 1st Rule is the one we use here since it gives an EVEN
number of divisions
Waterplane Area, Awp
Awp = 2 x 1/3 Dx [yo + 4y1 + 2y2+…2y n-2 + 4y n-1 + yn]
Section Area, Asect
Asect = 2 x 1/3 Dx [yo + 4y1 + 2y2+…2y n-2 + 4y n-1 + yn]
Note: You will always know the value of y for the stations (x or z)!
It will be presented in the Table of Offsets or readily measured…
Here’s how it’s put to use in this course:
The “2” is needed because the data you’ll have is for a half-section…

 dx
x
y
AWP )
(
2

 dz
z
y
A )
(
2
sect
- Uses 3 data points
- Assume 2nd order polynomial curve
Area : )
4
(
3
3
2
1
3
1
y
y
y
s
dx
y
dA
A
x
x




 

Simpson’s 1st Rule
x1 x3
y(x)=ax²+bx+c
x
y
A
dx
x1 x2 x3
s
y1 y2 y3
x
y
A
dA
Mathematical Integration Numerical Integration
x2
s
Simpson’s 1st Rule
)
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
(
3
)
4
(
3
)
4
(
3
)
4
(
3
)
4
(
3
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
9
8
7
7
6
5
5
4
3
3
2
1
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
s
y
y
y
s
y
y
y
s
y
y
y
s
y
y
y
s
A





















x1 x2 x3
s
y1
y2 y3
x
y
x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9
y4
y5
y6
y7
y8 y9
Gen. Eqn.
Odd number
)
4
2
...
2
4
(
3
A 1
2
3
2
1 n
n
n y
y
y
y
y
y
s






 

s
Volume, Submerged, Vsubmerged
- It gets a little trickier here… remember, since you are now dealing
with a VOLUME, the y term previous now becomes an AREA term
for that station section because you are summing the areas:
Vsub = 1/3 Dx [Ao + 4A1 + 2A2+…2A n-2 + 4A n-1 + An]
We can now move onto the next dimension, VOLUMES!

 dx
)
(
sect x
A
Vsubmerged
- uses 4 data points
- assumes 3rd order polynomial curve
Area : )
3
3
(
8
3
4
3
2
1 y
y
y
y
s
A 



x1 x2 x3
s s
y1 y2 y3
y(x)=ax³+bx²+cx+d
x
y
A
x4
y4
Simpson’s 2nd Rule
Longitudinal Center of Flotation, LCF
-This is the CENTROID of the Awp of the ship.
-For this reason you now need to introduce the distance, x, of the section Dx from
the y-axis
y
x AP
FP
Dx
That is, LCF is the sum of all the areas, dA, and their distances from
the y-axis, divided by the total area of the water plane…
y(x)
dA

 xdA
A
LCF WP
/
2
Longitudinal Center of Flotation, LCF, (cont’d)
- Since our sectional areas are done in half-sections this needs to be multiplied by 2
- Remember, dA = y(x)dx, so we can substitute for dA
- Awp is constant, so it moves left
LCF =2/Awp
LCF = 2/Awp x 1/3 Dx [(1) (xo) (yo) + 4 (x1) (y1) + 2 (x2) (y2) +… + (xn) (yn) ]
Substituting into Simpson's Eq., you’ll get the following:
Note that the blue terms are what we have to add to make Simpson work for LCF.
Remember to include them in your calculations!
x dA x y(x)dx
dA
2/Awp

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Hull form and geometry.pptx

  • 2. Intro to Ships and Naval Engineering (2.1) Factors which influence design: – Size – Speed – Payload – Range – Seakeeping – Maneuverability – Stability – Special Capabilities (Amphib, Aviation, ...) Compromise is required!
  • 3. Classification of Ship by Usage • Merchant Ship • Naval & Coast Guard Vessel • Recreational Vessel • Utility Tugs • Research & Environmental Ship • Ferries
  • 4. Categorizing Ships (2.2) Methods of Classification: Physical Support:  Hydrostatic  Hydrodynamic  Aerostatic (Aerodynamic)
  • 6. Classification of Ship by Support Type Aerostatic Support - ACV - SES (Captured Air Bubble) Hydrodynamic Support (Bernoulli) - Hydrofoil - Planning Hull Hydrostatic Support (Archimedes) - Conventional Ship - Catamaran - SWATH - Deep Displacement Submarine - Submarine - ROV
  • 7. Aerostatic Support Vessel rides on a cushion of air. Lighter weight, higher speeds, smaller load capacity. – Air Cushion Vehicles - LCAC: Opens up 75% of littoral coastlines, versus about 12% for displacement – Surface Effect Ships - SES: Fast, directionally stable, but not amphibious
  • 8. Aerostatic Support Supported by cushion of air ACV hull material : rubber propeller : placed on the deck amphibious operation SES side hull : rigid wall(steel or FRP) bow : skirt propulsion system : placed under the water water jet propulsion supercavitating propeller (not amphibious operation)
  • 10. English Channel Ferry - Hovercraft Aerostatic Support
  • 12. Hydrodynamic Support Supported by moving water. At slower speeds, they are hydrostatically supported – Planing Vessels - Hydrodynamics pressure developed on the hull at high speeds to support the vessel. Limited loads, high power requirements. – Hydrofoils - Supported by underwater foils, like wings on an aircraft. Dangerous in heavy seas. No longer used by USN.
  • 13. Planing Hull - supported by the hydrodynamic pressure developed under a hull at high speed - “V” or flat type shape - Commonly used in pleasure boat, patrol boat, missile boat, racing boat Hydrodynamic Support Destriero
  • 14. Hydrofoil Ship - supported by a hydrofoil, like wing on an aircraft - fully submerged hydrofoil ship - surface piercing hydrofoil ship Hydrodynamic Support Hydrofoil Ferry
  • 17. Hydrostatic Support Displacement Ships Float by displacing their own weight in water – Includes nearly all traditional military and cargo ships and 99% of ships in this course – Small Waterplane Area Twin Hull ships (SWATH) – Submarines (when surfaced)
  • 18. Hydrostatic Support The Ship is supported by its buoyancy. (Archimedes Principle) Archimedes Principle : An object partially or fully submerged in a fluid will experience a resultant vertical force equal in magnitude to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced by the object. The buoyant force of a ship is calculated from the displaced volume by the ship.
  • 19.   g FB  Mathematical Form of Archimedes Principle Hydrostatic Support S B F   Resultant Buoyancy Resultant Weight B F S  ) object(ft by the volume Displaced : /s) on(32.17ft accelerati nal Gravitatio : g ) /ft s (lb fluid of Density : force(lb) buouant resultant the of Magnitude : 3 4 2   B F 
  • 20. Hydrostatic Support Displacement ship - conventional type of ship - carries high payload - low speed SWATH - small waterplane area twin hull (SWATH) - low wave-making resistance - excellent roll stability - large open deck - disadvantage : deep draft and cost Catamaran/Trimaran - twin hull - other characteristics are similar to the SWATH Submarine
  • 30. 2.3 Ship Hull Form and Geometry The ship is a 3-dimensional shape: Data in x, y, and z directions is necessary to represent the ship hull. Table of Offsets Lines Drawings: - body plan (front View) - shear plan (side view) - half breadth plan (top view)
  • 31. Hull Form Representation Lines Drawings: Traditional graphical representation of the ship’s hull form…… “Lines” Half-Breadth Sheer Plan Body Plan
  • 32. Hull Form Representation Lines Plan Half-Breadth Plan (Top) Sheer Plan (Side) Body Plan (Front / End)
  • 33. Figure 2.3 - The Half-Breadth Plan Half-Breadth Plan - Intersection of planes (waterlines) parallel to the baseline (keel).
  • 34. Figure 2.4 - The Sheer Plan Sheer Plan -Intersection of planes (buttock lines) parallel to the centerline plane
  • 35. Figure 2.6 - The Body Plan Body Plan - Intersection of planes to define section line - Sectional lines show the true shape of the hull form - Forward sections from amidships : R.H.S. - Aft sections from amid ship : L.H.S.
  • 36. • Used to convert graphical information to a numerical representation of a three dimensional body. • Lists the distance from the center plane to the outline of the hull at each station and waterline. • There is enough information in the Table of Offsets to produce all three lines plans. Table of Offsets (2.4)
  • 37. Table of Offsets The distances from the centerplane are called the offsets or half-breadth distances.
  • 38. 2.5 Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics LOA(length over all ) : Overall length of the vessel DWL(design waterline) : Water line where the ship is designed to float Stations : parallel planes from forward to aft, evenly spaced (like bread).Normally an odd number to ensure an even number of blocks. FP(forward perpendicular) : imaginary vertical line where the bow intersects the DWL AP(aft perpendicular) : imaginary vertical line located at either the rudder stock or intersection of the stern with DWL LOA Lpp AP FP DWL Shear
  • 39. Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics Lpp (length between perpendicular) : horizontal distance from FP and AP Amidships : the point midway between FP and AP ( ) Midships Station Shear : longitudinal curvature given to deck LOA Lpp AP FP DWL Shear
  • 40. Beam: B Camber Depth: D Draft: T Freeboard WL K C L View of midship section Depth(D): vertical distance measured from keel to deck taken at amidships and deck edge in case the ship is cambered on the deck. Draft(T) : vertical distance from keel to the water surface Beam(B) : transverse distance across the each section Breadth(B) : transverse distance measured amidships Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics
  • 41. Beam: B Camber Depth: D Draft: T Freeboard WL K C L View of midship section Freeboard : distance from depth to draft (reserve buoyancy) Keel (K) : locate the bottom of the ship Camber : transverse curvature given to deck Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics
  • 42. Flare Tumblehome Flare : outward curvature of ship’s hull surface above the waterline Tumble Home : opposite of flare Basic Dimensions and Hull Form Characteristics
  • 43. Example Problem • Label the following: x y z C. (translation) _____ A.(translation) _____ B. (translation) ____ E. (rotation) _____/____ D. (rotation) ____/____/____ F. (rotation) ___ G. Viewed from this direction ____ Plan H. Viewed from this direction _____ Plan I. Viewed from this direction ____-_______ Plan J. _______ Line K. _______ Line L. _____line M. Horizontal ref plane for vertical measurements ________ N. Forward ref plane for longitudinal measurements _______ _____________ O. Aft ref plane for longitudinal measurements ___ _____________ P. Middle ref plane for longitudinal measurements _________ Q. Longitudinal ref plane for transverse measurements __________ R. Distance between “N.” & “O.” ___=______ _______ ______________ S. Width of the ship ____
  • 44. Example Answer • Label the following: x y z C. (translation) Heave A.(translation) Surge B. (translation) Sway E. (rotation) Pitch/Trim D. (rotation) Roll/List/Heel F. (rotation) Yaw G. Viewed from this direction Body Plan H. Viewed from this direction Sheer Plan I. Viewed from this direction Half-Breadth Plan J. Section Line K. Buttock Line L. Waterline M. Horizontal ref plane for vertical measurements Baseline N. Forward ref plane for longitudinal measurements Forward Perpendicular O. Aft ref plane for longitudinal measurements Aft Perpendicular P. Middle ref plane for longitudinal measurements Amidships Q. Longitudinal ref plane for transverse measurements Centerline R. Distance between “N.” & “O.” LBP=Length between Perpendiculars S. Width of the ship Beam
  • 45. 2.6 Centroids Centroid - Area - Mass - Volume - Force - Buoyancy(LCB or TCB) - Floatation(LCF or TCF) Apply the Weighed Average Scheme or  Moment =0
  • 46. Centroid – The geometric center of a body. Center of Mass - A “single point” location of the mass. … Better known as the Center of Gravity (CG). CG and Centroids are only in the same place for uniform (homogenous) mass! Centroids
  • 47. Centroids a1 a2 a3 an y1 y2 y3 yn Y X • Centroids and Center of Mass can be found by using a weighted average.          1 i i 1 i i i ave a a y y          3 2 1 3 3 2 2 1 1 ave a a a a y a y a y y
  • 48. Centroid of Area             T i n i i T n i i i A a x A a x x 1 1             T i n i i T n i i i A a y A a y y 1 1 y1 y2 y3 x1 x2 x3 x y x y 1 a 2 a 3 a n i i a a a a x         2 1 T i A area al differenti : center area al differenti to axis - x from distance : y center area al differenti to axis - y from distance :
  • 49. Centroid of Area Example 3ft² 8ft ² 5ft ² 2 2 3 2 4 7 axis - y from 125 . 5 16 82 8 5 3 7 8 4 5 2 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft ft A a x A a x x T i n i i T n i i i                       ..... 3 1 3 1              T i i i T i i i A a y A a y y x y x y
  • 50. Centroid of Area x x y b h dx x AT Also moment created by total area AT will produce a moment w.r.t y axis and can be written below. (recall Moment=force×moment arm) x1 x A M T   Since the moment created by differential area dA is , total moment which is called 1st Moment of Area is calculated by integrating the whole area as,   xdA M xdA dM  The two moments are identical so that centroid of the geometry is T A xdA x   This eqn. will be used to determine LCF in this Chapter. b x hb hbx hb A hdx x A xdA x T b x x T 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1           Proof
  • 51. 2.7 Center of Floatation & Center of Buoyancy LCF: centroid of water plane from the amidships TCF : centroid of water plane from the centerline In this case of ship, - LCF is at aft of amidship. - TCF is on the centerline. Amidships LCF TCF centerline - Centroid of water plane (LCF varies depending on draft.) - Pivot point for list and trim of floating ship Center of Floatation The Center of Flotation changes as the ship lists, trims, or changes draft because as the shape of the waterplane changes so does the location of the centroid.
  • 52. • LCB: Longitudinal center of buoyancy from amidships • KB : Vertical center of buoyancy from the Keel • TCB : Transverse center of buoyancy from the centerline Center line Base line TCB LCB KB Center of Buoyancy - Centroid of displaced water volume - Buoyant force act through this centroid. Center of Buoyancy moves when the ship lists, trims or changes draft because the shape of the submerged body has changed thus causing the centroid to move.
  • 53. Center of Buoyancy : B 2 2 1 1 2 - Buoyancy force (Weight of Barge) - LCB : at midship - TCB : on centerline - KB : T/2 - Reserve Buoyancy Force WL 1 1 1 1 T/2 C L centerline B B WL
  • 54. 2.8 Fundamental Geometric Calculation Why numerical integration? - Ship is complex and its shape cannot usually be represented by a mathematical equation. - A numerical scheme, therefore, should be used to calculate the ship’s geometrical properties. - Uses the coordinates of a curve (e.g. Table of Offsets) to integrate Which numerical method ? - Rectangle rule - Trapezoidal rule - Simpson’s 1st rule (Used in this course) - Simpson’s 2nd rule
  • 56. - Uses 2 data points - Assumes linear curve : y=mx+b Total Area = A1+A2+A3 = s/2 (y1+2y2+2y3+y4) x1 x2 x3 x4 s s s y1 y2 y3 y4 A1 A2 A3 A1=s/2*(y1+y2) A2=s/2*(y2+y3) A3=s/2*(y3+y4) Trapezoidal Rule s = ∆x = x2-x1 = x3-x2 = x4-x3
  • 57. - Uses 3 data points - Assume 2nd order polynomial curve Area : ) 4 ( 3 3 2 1 3 1 y y y x dx y dA A x x         Simpson’s 1st Rule x1 x3 y(x)=ax²+bx+c x y A dx x1 x2 x3 s y1 y2 y3 x y A dA Mathematical Integration Numerical Integration x2 s (S=∆x)
  • 58. Simpson’s 1st Rule ) 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 ( 3 ) 4 ( 3 ) 4 ( 3 ) 4 ( 3 ) 4 ( 3 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 7 6 5 5 4 3 3 2 1 y y y y y y y y y s y y y s y y y s y y y s y y y s A                      x1 x2 x3 s y1 y2 y3 x y x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8 y9 Gen. Eqn. Odd number Evenly spaced ) 4 2 ... 2 4 ( 3 A 1 2 3 2 1 n n n y y y y y y x          
  • 59. Application of Numerical Integration Application - Waterplane Area - Sectional Area - Submerged Volume - LCF - VCB - LCB Scheme - Simpson’s 1st Rule
  • 60. 2.9 Numerical Calculation Calculation Steps 1. Start with a sketch of what you are about to integrate. 2. Show the differential element you are using. 3. Properly label your axis and drawing. 4. Write out the generalized calculus equation written in the same symbols you used to label your picture. 5. Convert integral in Simpson’s equation. 6. Solve by substituting each number into the equation.
  • 61. Section 2.9 See your “Equations and Conversions” Sheet Waterplane Area – AWP=2y(x)dx; where integral is half breadths by station Sectional Area – Asect=2y(z)dz; where integral is half breadths by waterline Z Y Half-Breadths (feet) 0 Water lines y(z) dz=Waterline Spacing (Body Plan) dx=Station Spacing Half- Breadths (feet) X Y Stations y(x) 0 (Half-Breadth Plan) 0
  • 62. Section 2.9 See your “Equations and Conversions” Sheet Submerged Volume – VS=Asectdx; where integral is sectional areas by station Longitudinal Center of Floatation – LCF=(2/AWP)*xydx; where integral is product of distance from FP & half breadths by station X Asect Sectional Areas (feet²) Stations A(x) 0 dx=Station Spacing X Y Half- Breadths (feet) Stations y(x) dx=Station Spacing 0 (Half-Breadth Plan) x
  • 63. Waterplane Area y x dx FP AP y(x)     area Lpp WP dx x y dA A 0 ) ( 2 2 ft) ( width al differenti ) ft ( at breadth) - (half offset ) ( ) ( area al differenti ) ( area waterplane 2 2     dx x y x y ft dA ft AWP Factor for symmetric waterplane area
  • 64. Waterplane Area Generalized Simpson’s Equation   n n n WP y y y y y x A           1 2 2 1 0 4 2 .. 2 4 y 3 1 2 stations between distance  x y x FP AP 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 
  • 65. Sectional Area Sectional Area : Numerical integration of half-breadth as a function of draft WL z y dz y(z) T     area T dz z y dA A 0 sect ) ( 2 2 ) width( al differenti ) z( at breadth) - f offset(hal ) ( ) area( al differenti ) ( to up area sectional 2 2 sec ft dz ft y z y ft dA ft z A t    
  • 66. Sectional Area Generalized Simpson’s equation lines btwn water distance  z   n n n area T t y y y y y z dz z y dA A               1 2 2 1 0 0 sec 4 2 .. 2 4 y 3 1 2 ) ( 2 2 z y WL T 0 2 4 6 8 z
  • 67. Submerged Volume : Longitudinal Integration Submerged Volume : Integration of sectional area over the length of ship Scheme: z x y ) (x As
  • 68. Submerged Volume Sectional Area Curve Calculus equation       volume L s submerged pp dx x A dV V 0 sect ) ( x As FP AP dx ) ( sec x A t Generalized equation   n n s y y y y x         1 2 1 0 4 .. 2 4 y 3 1 stations between distance  x
  • 69. Asection, Awp , and submerged volume are examples of how Simpson’s rule is used to find area and volume… … The next slides show how it can be used to find the centroid of a given area. The only difference in the procedure is the addition of another term, the distance of the individual area segments from the y-axis…the value of x. The values of x will be the progressive sum of the ∆x… if ∆x is the width of the sections, say 10, then x0=0, x1=10, x2=20,x3=30… and so on.
  • 70. Longitudinal Center of Floatation(LCF) LCF - Centroid of waterplane area - Distance from reference point to center of floatation - Referenced to amidships or FP - Sign convention of LCF + + - FP WL
  • 71. y x dx FP AP y(x) Weighted Average of Variable X (i.e. distance from FP)          total piece small value X X variable of Average X all WA WA A dx x xy A xdA x     ) ( 2 2 Moment Relation dA T T A dx x xy A xdA x     ) ( Recall Longitudinal Center of Floatation (LCF)   xdA My : area of moment First
  • 72. y x dx FP AP y(x)       Lpp WP area Lpp WP WP dx x y x A dx A x xy A xdA LCF 0 0 ) ( 2 ) ( 2 LCF by weighted averaged scheme or Moment relation LCF Longitudinal Center of Floatation(LCF)
  • 73. Generalized Simpson’s Equation   n n n n L WP y x y x y x y x y x x dx x y x A LCF pp            1 1 2 2 1 1 0 0 WP 0 4 .. 2 4 3 1 A 2 ) ( 2 stations between distance  x y x FP AP 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x  x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 .... , 2 , , 0 3 2 1 0       x x x x x x Longitudinal Center of Floatation(LCF)
  • 74. It’s often easier to put all the information in tabular form on an Excel spreadsheet: Station Dist from FP (x value) Half- Breadth (y value) Moment x y Simpson Multiplier Product of Moment x Multiplier 0 0.0 0.39 0.0 1 0.0 1 81.6 12.92 1054.3 4 4217.1 2 163.2 20.97 3422.3 2 6844.6 3 244.8 21.71 5314.6 4 21258.4 4 326.4 12.58 4106.1 1 4106.1 36426.2 Remember, this gives only part of the equation! ….You still need the “2/Awp x 1/3 Dx” part! Dx here is 81.6 ft Awp would be given “2” because you’re dealing with a half-breadth section
  • 76. This is similar to the LCF in that it is a CENTROID, but where LCF is the centroid of the Awp, KB is the centroid of the submerged volume of the ship measured from the keel… Vertical Center of Buoyancy, KB x y z Awp KB where: - Awp is the area of the waterplane at the distance z from the keel - z is the distance of the Awp section from the x-axis - dz is the spacing between the Awp sections, or Dz in Simpson’s Eq.    dz z zA KB WP ) (
  • 77. KB =1/3 dz [(1) (zo) (Awpo) + 4 (z1) (Awp1) + 2 (z2) (Awp2) +… + (zn) (Awpn) ]/ underwater hull volume You can now put this into Simpson’s Equation: Remember that the blue terms are what we have to add to make Simpson work for KB. Don’t forget to include them in your calculations!    dz z zA KB WP ) (
  • 78. This is EXACTLY the same as KB, only this time: - Instead of taking measurements along the z-axis, you’re taking them from the x-axis - Instead of using waterplane areas, you’re using section areas - It’ll tell you how far back from the FP the center of buoyancy is. Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy, LCB x y z where: - Asect is the area of the section at the distance z from the forward perpendicular (FP) - x is the distance of the Asect section from the y-axis - dx is the spacing between the Asect sections, or Dx in Simpson’s Eq. And FINALLY,… LCB Asection    dx x xA LCB Sect ) (
  • 79. LCB = 1/3 dx [(1) (xo) (Asect) + 4 (x1) (Asect 1) + 2 (x2) (Asect 2) +… + (xn) (Asect n) ] / underwater hull volume You can now put this into Simpson’s Equation: Remember that the blue terms are what we have to add to make Simpson work for LCB. Don’t forget to include them in your calculations!    dx x xA LCB Sect ) (
  • 80. And that is Simpson’s Equations as they apply to this course! The concept of finding the center of an area, LCF, or the center of a volume, LCB or KB, are just centroid equations. Understand THAT concept, and you can find the center of any shape or object! Don’t waste your time memorizing all the formulas! Understand the basic Simpson’s 1st, understand the concept behind the different uses, and you’ll never be lost!
  • 81. 2.10 Curves of Forms Curves of Forms • A graph which shows all the geometric properties of the ship as a function of ship’s mean draft • Displacement, LCB, KB, TPI, WPA, LCF, MTI”, KML and KMT are usually included. Assumptions • Ship has zero list and zero trim (upright, even keel) • Ship is floating in 59°F salt water
  • 83. Curves of Forms Displacement ( ) - assume ship is in the salt water with - unit of displacement : long ton 1 long ton (LT) =2240 lb LCB - Longitudinal center of buoyancy - Distance in feet from reference point (FP or Amidships) VCB or KB - Vertical center of buoyancy - Distance in feet from the Keel  ) /ft s ( 1.99 ρ 4 2 lb 
  • 84. Curves of Forms • TPI (Tons per Inch Immersion) - TPI : tons required to obtain one inch of parallel sinkage in salt water - Parallel sinkage: the ship changes its forward and aft draft by the same amount so that no change in trim occurs - Trim : difference between forward and aft draft of ship - Unit of TPI : LT/inch fwd aft T T   Trim Note: for parallel sinkage to occur, weight must be added at center of flotation (F).
  • 85. TPI 1 inch - Assume side wall is vertical in one inch. - TPI varies at the ship’s draft because waterplane area changes at the draft 1 inch Awp (sq. ft)
  • 88. Curves of Forms • Moment/Trim 1 inch (MT1) - MT1 : moment to change trim one inch - The ship will rotate about the center of flotation when a moment is applied to it. - The moment can be produced by adding, removing or shifting a weight some distance from F. - Unit : LT-ft/inch " 1 MT l w Trim   F AP FP 1 inch l Change in Trim due to a Weight Addition/Removal
  • 89. Curves of Forms - When MT1” is due to a weight shift, l is the distance the weight was moved - When MT1” is due to a weight removal or addition, l is the distance from the weight to F LCF New waterline l
  • 90. Curves of Forms L KM • - Distance in feet from the keel to the longitudinal metacenter T KM • - Distance in feet from the keel to the transverse metacenter M K B M B K L KM T KM FP AP
  • 91. Example Problem A YP has a forward draft of 9.5 ft and an aft draft of 10.5ft. Using the YP Curves of Form, provide the following information: = _____ KMT=____ WPA= _____ LCB=____ LCF=_____ VCB=____ TPI=____ KML=____ MT1”=_________
  • 94. Example Answer A YP has a forward draft of 9.5 ft and an aft draft of 10.5ft. Using the YP Curves of Form, provide the following information:  = 192.5×2 LT = 385 LT KMT = 192.5×.06 ft = 11.55 ft WPA = 235×8.4 ft² = 1974 ft² LCB = 56 ft fm FP LCF = 56 ft fm FP VCB = 125×.05 ft = 6.25 ft TPI = 235×.02 LT/in = 4.7 LT/in KML = 112×1 ft = 112 ft MT1” = 250×.141 ft-LT/in = 35.25 ft-LT/in
  • 96. Example Problem A 40 foot boat has the following Table of Offsets (Half Breadths in Feet): What is the area of the waterplane at a draft of 4 feet? H a lf-B re a d th s fro m C e n te rlin e in F e e t S ta tio n N u m b e rs W A T ER L IN E F P A P (ft) 0 1 2 3 4 4 1.1 5.2 8.6 10.1 10.8
  • 98. Simpson’s Rule is used when a standard integration technique is too involved or not easily performed. • A curve that is not defined mathematically • A curve that is irregular and not easily defined mathematically It is an APPROXIMATION of the true integration Simpson’s Rule
  • 99. Given an integral in the following form: Where y is a function of x, that is, y is the dependent variable defined by x, the integral can be approximated by dividing the area under the curve into equally spaced sections, Dx, … x y = f(x) y y = f(x) y …and summing the individual areas. Dx  dx x y ) (
  • 100. Dx y = f(x) y x Notice that: Spacing is constant along x (the dx in the integral is the Dx here)  The value of y (the height) depends on the location on x (y is a function of x, aka y= f(x)  The area of the series of “rectangles” can be summed up Simpson’s Rule breaks the curve into these sections and then sums them up for total area under the curve
  • 101. Simpson’s 1st Rule Area = 1/3 Dx [yo + 4y1 + 2y2+…2y n-2 + 4y n-1 + yn] where: - n is an ODD number of stations - Dx is the distance between stations - yn is the value of y at the given station along x - Repeats in a pattern of 1,4,2,4,2,4,2……2,4,1 Simpson’s 2nd Rule Area = 3/8 Dx [yo + 3y1 + 3y2 + 2y3 + 3y4 +3y5 + 2y6 +… + 3y n-1 + yn] where: - n is an EVEN number of stations - Repeats in a pattern 1,3,3,2,3,3,2,3,3,2,……2,3,3,1 Simpson’s 1st Rule is the one we use here since it gives an EVEN number of divisions
  • 102. Waterplane Area, Awp Awp = 2 x 1/3 Dx [yo + 4y1 + 2y2+…2y n-2 + 4y n-1 + yn] Section Area, Asect Asect = 2 x 1/3 Dx [yo + 4y1 + 2y2+…2y n-2 + 4y n-1 + yn] Note: You will always know the value of y for the stations (x or z)! It will be presented in the Table of Offsets or readily measured… Here’s how it’s put to use in this course: The “2” is needed because the data you’ll have is for a half-section…   dx x y AWP ) ( 2   dz z y A ) ( 2 sect
  • 103. - Uses 3 data points - Assume 2nd order polynomial curve Area : ) 4 ( 3 3 2 1 3 1 y y y s dx y dA A x x        Simpson’s 1st Rule x1 x3 y(x)=ax²+bx+c x y A dx x1 x2 x3 s y1 y2 y3 x y A dA Mathematical Integration Numerical Integration x2 s
  • 104. Simpson’s 1st Rule ) 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 ( 3 ) 4 ( 3 ) 4 ( 3 ) 4 ( 3 ) 4 ( 3 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 9 8 7 7 6 5 5 4 3 3 2 1 y y y y y y y y y s y y y s y y y s y y y s y y y s A                      x1 x2 x3 s y1 y2 y3 x y x4 x5 x6 x7 x8 x9 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8 y9 Gen. Eqn. Odd number ) 4 2 ... 2 4 ( 3 A 1 2 3 2 1 n n n y y y y y y s          s
  • 105. Volume, Submerged, Vsubmerged - It gets a little trickier here… remember, since you are now dealing with a VOLUME, the y term previous now becomes an AREA term for that station section because you are summing the areas: Vsub = 1/3 Dx [Ao + 4A1 + 2A2+…2A n-2 + 4A n-1 + An] We can now move onto the next dimension, VOLUMES!   dx ) ( sect x A Vsubmerged
  • 106. - uses 4 data points - assumes 3rd order polynomial curve Area : ) 3 3 ( 8 3 4 3 2 1 y y y y s A     x1 x2 x3 s s y1 y2 y3 y(x)=ax³+bx²+cx+d x y A x4 y4 Simpson’s 2nd Rule
  • 107. Longitudinal Center of Flotation, LCF -This is the CENTROID of the Awp of the ship. -For this reason you now need to introduce the distance, x, of the section Dx from the y-axis y x AP FP Dx That is, LCF is the sum of all the areas, dA, and their distances from the y-axis, divided by the total area of the water plane… y(x) dA   xdA A LCF WP / 2
  • 108. Longitudinal Center of Flotation, LCF, (cont’d) - Since our sectional areas are done in half-sections this needs to be multiplied by 2 - Remember, dA = y(x)dx, so we can substitute for dA - Awp is constant, so it moves left LCF =2/Awp LCF = 2/Awp x 1/3 Dx [(1) (xo) (yo) + 4 (x1) (y1) + 2 (x2) (y2) +… + (xn) (yn) ] Substituting into Simpson's Eq., you’ll get the following: Note that the blue terms are what we have to add to make Simpson work for LCF. Remember to include them in your calculations! x dA x y(x)dx dA 2/Awp