5G-Robotics-EN.pdf

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REPLY specialises in the design and implementation of solutions based on new communication
channels and digital media. As a network of highly specialised companies, Reply defines and
develops business models enabled by the new models of AI, big data, cloud computing, digital
media and the internet of things. Reply delivers consulting, system integration and digital services
to organisations across the telecom and media; industry and services; banking and insurance;
and public sectors.
5G PAVES THE WAY
FOR THE ADOPTION
OF ROBOTS
The ongoing cloud robotics revolution will reach its full potential thanks to
the development of the 5G network: Reply has analysed several use cases
of 5G-powered robots and is actively working on building the enablers for a
successful 5G cloud robotics approach.

THE DAWN OF THE CLOUD
ROBOTICS ERA
MEC
Cloud robotics needs to be executed from the edge of the network, both to reduce
latency to the lowest and to avoid any possible disconnection/bottlenecks across long
network trunks. Furthermore, robots working remotely will send potentially huge amounts
of data from the field, from videos or thermal cameras, from laser scans, and so on. All
these data must be analysed automatically, from AI algorithms, sometimes to react in
real-time. The more these algorithms are hosted on the edge of the network, the more
they will be efficient and effective in promptly solving dangerous situations and will
decongest the rest of the network.
The 5G-controlled robots will be increasingly pervasive. The growth of 5G for
Macro-cellular, micro-cellular and Mobile Private Networks (MPN), combined with 5G
Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) and AI-based, real-time applications, will enable the
creation of a new “Robot ecosystem” composed of UGV and UAV fleets.
The Smart Robot-based businesses will expand 5G-based, hyper-connected services
and secure leading technology in edge cloud over the next few years.
Robots have become increasingly
advanced and widespread in recent years:
according to Statista, the sales volume of
the industrial robotics European market
has increased from 65 thousand to 90
thousand units sold every year, in the
last five years, and the size of the global
market for industrial and non-industrial
robots will rise from $63.9 billion (in
2018) to $209.38 billion (in 2025). As
a result, robots play a more and more
important role in innovating and optimising
processes in manufacturing, agriculture,
healthcare and many other industries.
In particular, mobile robots such as
quadrupeds, rovers and drones, which are
able to autonomously move around, can
support or even substitute human tasks
and increase operation efficiency and
safety. Today their huge potential is limited,
in most applications, by the need for local
control or at least local supervision, by
a human operator. Enabling the human
supervision or control from a remote
centre, where a qualified operator can
supervise up to one hundred robots, will
exploit the full potential of robots and will
move us into the cloud robotic era.
While cloud robotics platforms are coming
from different players, we still lack the kind
of connectivity needed for a professional
remote control of a robotic fleet.
That is where 5G will fill the gap. The
imminent 5G release, based on 3GPP
release 16, will implement the key features
that will grant the connectivity needed
for cloud robotics. Most of the new
capabilities offered by 5G are relevant for
cloud robotics, a use case that is natively
‘mobile’.
Low Latency
Connected devices can serve as a medium for infrastructure attacks, such as a
DDoS attack from infected IoT devices. One of the most important challenges to be
addressed will be the constant monitoring of the health of the endpoints contained
within the private slice.
Ultra-broadband
In order to control a robot remotely, it is essential to have a clear vision of the
surroundings coming from high definition, possibly 360°, cameras. Thus, a good
upload bandwidth is required.
Security
Most of data recorded and sent from robots must be kept increasingly secure, as
well as all the control data coming from the command centre through the cloud
robotic platforms.
Network slicing
In a real-time, mission-critical situation, Low Latency and broadband ‘best effort’
availability is not enough. Operators and companies need granted connectivity
performance that ensure that latency and bandwidth KPI are granted for all mission
time.
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5G PAVES THE WAY FOR THE ADOPTION OF ROBOTS

5G AND ROBOTICS
USE CASES
More and more different kinds of robot are coming onto the market, meaning that
many different use cases will be covered. In this section we will highlight the most
interesting cases in terms of market size or potential impact.
PATROLLING, TELEOPERATIONS AND
INSPECTIONS
Nowadays companies can rely on Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) and Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to increase the efficiency of routine inspections and operations
in a safer, more accurate and more frequent way than if they employed humans. In
particular, AMRs can execute some unmanned patrolling operations while having a stable
walk on rugged terrains and avoiding obstacles.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, including drones, could also collaborate with AMRs
for monitoring purposes. AMRs and UAVs can periodically execute an unmanned
surveillance of a defined area (from industrial sites to shopping malls) providing plenty of
images and sensor data, adopters of these robots can exploit a First Person View (FPV)
PATROLLING,
TELEOPERATIONS
& INSPECTIONS
REAL-TIME
DECISION MAKING
DELIVERY LOGISTICS
system for unsupervised navigation through a Virtual Reality, head-mounted display,
experiencing immersive teleoperation capabilities. The below-mentioned examples
represent valid 5G applications for Patrolling and Teleoperations.
Patrolling at public places, malls, offices and factories
• Monitor social distancing and recognize masks.
• Detect the presence of fire extinguishers.
• Identify the presence of obstructions at the emergency exits.
Surveillance of industrial sites, construction sites and warehouses
• Recognise basic characteristics and normal behaviours to prevent theft and
intruders.
• Verify that personal safety equipment is worn correctly.
• Monitor shelves and identify lost packets.
Inspection of sites and related analysis of data
• Analyse the pipes by evaluating the presence of small drips or detecting the
presence of harmful gases, leakages, radiation.
• Read manometers/thermometers/gauges to report the status of resources.
• Conduct dangerous inspection missions and collect data from extremely hazardous
and toxic environments that are too dangerous or too loud for individuals to enter.
There are many examples of Patrolling and Teleoperations, and they may vary from
traditional robotics cases to more advanced practices. As you might expect, 5G is
distinctive for “fully” autonomous robots able to perform complex tasks.
We can quote, for example, the high-speed data offload required to perform real-
time alarming and corrective actions in the case of very dangerous events: these
robots have learned to recognise it from previous machine learning training.
Also, unforeseen obstacles or mis-operation can lead to damaged products or
machinery, or worse still, serious injuries. But with 5G, autonomous robots can be put
on a constant sensor contact with their surroundings: this means adding precision
to its path and incredibly minimising human errors. Workers can guide machines
remotely thanks to Augmented and Virtual Reality technologies, which are expected
to become truly viable due to the speed and low latency of 5G.
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As an example of successful adoption of SPOT and robotics in the patrolling and
inspection domain, to increase operational efficiency and ensure safety, Reply is
supporting a worldwide leading company within the Energy sector in order to:
• Perform quality and safety inspections (gas, steam, liquid detection).
• Check the availability of HSE equipment.
• Create a digital representation of sites using LIDAR-3D scans and the laser scanner
Leica RTC360.
• Guard and patrol extended work areas, plants, buildings and assets.
Reply is also actively working on aerial vehicles, such as fleets of drones operating over
5G networks. For example, in the Telco and Towerco markets, Reply has implemented
a methodology aiming for the re-engineering of processes concerning RF design, RF
optimisation, site inspection and video-surveillance, assurance and maintenance.
Following the 5G deployment roadmap and national UAV flight regulations, Reply is
performing trials to complete its BVLOS flight offering, as well as the VLOS / EVLOS
one, and to enable QoS management through network slicing and MEC components:
this will make it possible to provide dedicated services, even for MPN (Mobile Private
Network) support.
Reply, which is playing a relevant role in this
domain, has signed a strategic partnership
with Boston Dynamics, the global leader
in developing and deploying highly mobile
robots capable of tackling the toughest
robotics challenges.
Reply is meeting the demand for complex
tasks and missions thanks to the adoption
of SPOT, the quadruped Boston Dynamics
Robot with advanced movement, enhanced
sensors and computer vision capabilities.
Reply is among the first Boston Dynamics
Integration Partners worldwide and is
determined to support businesses in
benefitting from advanced mobile robotics.
REAL-TIME DECISION MAKING
On a next-generation network, AMRs and UAVs are expected to use Artificial
Intelligence and Computer Vision to elaborate raw data at an extremely highspeed
in order to inform real-time decision-making.
The most innovative robots are expected to be able to perform the so-called
“computing on the fly” to provide the early adopters with a 360-degree overview
on how a monitored situation is going, in order to facilitate very precise and almost
anticipatory business decisions, which can reduce human intervention to a limited
number of highly critical cases. For example, drones will incorporate Artificial
Intelligence directly into their routines to directly identify entire products at a
glance, instead of scanning barcodes, and to process gathered information in real
time, without waiting for the drone to dock and upload its cache of data, since it
had already been sent over the air.
Smart Agriculture Scenario
A possible scenario for the application of 5G Robots in Real-time Decision Making
is Smart Agriculture, since the relentless growth of the human population over time
has produced an exceptional rise in food demand and an urgent need to tackle
international food safety. The robots’ collaboration can play a key role in this
context, thus improving the efficiency of farming processes. Think about examples
of Interconnected Agriculture and Precision Farming, where real-time control
and autonomous driving capabilities can enable field robots to assist workers
by carrying payloads and conducting agricultural operations. Image processing
and data gathered from sensors can be used for an instant evaluation of the
phenological phases, controlling weeds, detecting the presence of insects and
diagnosing diseases.
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DELIVERY
The 5G-controlled robots are pervading the delivery market and will change the way
consumers shop. Connected robots are now being used to improve efficiency and even
replace human labour in a variety of industries. Robotics technologies can improve
productivity and offset differences in labour costs in different regions.
Besides, the coronavirus outbreak is contributing to the boom in business, because of
contactless delivery and the requirement for social distancing. While autonomous delivery
robots were already in use in some urban areas, airports, universities, hotels and large
corporate campuses prior to the pandemic, demand for them is expanding exponentially
since they could not be infected with the novel coronavirus as human delivery drivers
could. All delivery sectors are being potentially revolutionised by the adoption of robots
and several trials have been already started, a few of them taking advantage of 5G
capabilities to fully exploit the use case.
In food delivery, a delivery droid
named ‘Doora’, powered by 5G, is
roaming the streets of Stockholm,
delivering food to people who
have ordered online. Tele2 (the first
telecom operator to introduce a 5G
network in Sweden) and Foodora
have partnered to pilot the delivery
droid in the country. A low-latency
network is required to navigate in
real-time.
In the parcel delivery sector,
Amazon has officially rolled out
its last-mile delivery robots in
a Southern California testbed.
Called Scout, the delivery robot is
designed to autonomously ferry
parcels from urban distribution
points to Amazon Prime customers,
removing the need for vans and
cars in last-mile delivery.
These are just two examples of the 5G cloud robotics for delivery market. With the
full power of 5G, robots can utilise IoT, high-bandwidth, and low-latency networks, to
automate a lot of processes and work that is carried out using manual labour today.
FOODORA AMAZON
LOGISTICS
Reply is actively working on aerial
vehicles, such as fleets of drones
operating over 5G networks, to support
its customers in process digitalisation by
providing innovative end-to-end solutions
to meet the continuously new challenges
to industry.
Indeed, Reply has built a series of use
cases addressed to several markets
and sectors: Telco, Energy, Logistics,
Manufacturing, Safety & Emergency, Public
Administration, Agritech, Towerco. As an
example, for MPN applications and also for
Logistics markets, Reply has implemented
a precise methodology aiming for the re-
engineering of processes concerning site
inspection, video-surveillance, inventory
and asset maintenance. Furthermore,
Reply is also actively working in building
the enablers for a successful adoption of
the 5G cloud robotics approach.
Focusing on the Logistics market, 5G
connectivity turns out to be the key for the
automation of operations. The reason for
this is related to the main 5G “slices” that
allow ultra-broadband capacity, real-time
services and massive IoT sensors. Thanks
to these innovative features, the Logistics
ecosystem is enriched by applications
and autonomous systems that improve
safety conditions, reduce operation times
and enable a new range of end-to-end
solutions.
The next-generation Logistics entails a
fully-automated supply chain, which
requires breakthroughs in disruptive
technologies. Many intelligent robotic
devices have been employed (i.e., in
warehousing for automated sorting,
transfer, as well as inbound and outbound
logistics).
In the Logistics field, drones and robots
can enhance end-to-end Logistics
operations for three different use cases.
INVENTORY
MANAGEMENT
INSPECTION AND
SURVEILLANCE
INTRA-
LOGISTICS
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Inventory management
The 5G network will enable a new BVLOS flight for drones and extend the use of
UAV for innovative operations. Reply can provide complete E2E services for Logistic
4.0, including a dedicated use case design and development, in order to achieve
autonomous warehouse inventory management through innovative Drone-as-a-Service
(DaaS) solutions, based on a combination of UAV, 5G, re-charging stations and AI-based
applications for barcode reading, asset tracking, optimisation of operations. This will
ensure the following:
1. Improvement of inventory operations time, through scheduling and autonomous flight.
2. Enhancement of Real-time asset tracking, by using dedicated AI-based applications.
3. Improvement of safety levels for employees at work.
4. Cost reduction.
Inspection and surveillance
Drones can be a viable alternative to replace the manual item search. In warehouses,
drones can, for example, inspect roofs, racks, pallet placements, walls, and ceilings.
The growth of warehouse operations and customer demand makes inspection processes
expensive and difficult. Indoor inspection tasks often require skilled inspectors and
sometimes work is obstructed during inspections. Indoor drones are a perfect fit for tasks
that require monitoring and inspection in dangerous areas or high altitudes. This will:
1. Automatically count items stored in aisles as narrow as 5 feet and racks taller than 40
feet.
2. Reduce the timing of operations.
3. Improve safety for employees.
4. Multi-purpose operations (i.e. counting, searching, monitoring,…).
5. Cost reduction.
Intra-logistics
Drones can also be used, for instance, to transport parts from warehouses to workshops
in factories. The ability of drones to follow pre-defined flight paths and carry items show
good potential for indoor use, such as on-site express delivery of tools and spare parts
as well as lubricants. Indoor intra-logistics operations between different areas of the
warehouse or indoor-to-outdoor and outdoor-to-outdoor in parking lots or storage areas
can be facilitated through the use of cargo drones that allow you to load heavy payloads.
This will ensure:
1. A reduction in time to operations.
2. An improvement in E2E warehouse efficiency.
3. Cost reduction.
UGV APPLICATIONS FOR
LOGISTICS
An ultra-fast, low-latency network should
help robots to become fully integrated
pieces of the Industrial Internet of Things
(IIoT). A next-generation network also
has the potential to radically increase the
viability of augmented and virtual reality on
the factory floor, changing the way robots
and humans work together.
Ultimately, robotics in the age of 5G can
make operations more efficient while
also improving worker safety and the
bottom line. For example, thanks to the
uRLLC (ultra-Reliable Low Latency) slice,
it’s possible to perform near real-time
operations, with latency less than 1ms
and control distributed robots with a high
degree of freedom, in both horizontal and
vertical planes.
The RTLS (Real Time Location Services)
is another feature enabled by the 5G
network that uses OTDA positioning to
refine indoor position with an accuracy of
less than 3cm.
UAV APPLICATIONS IN LOGISTICS
Through the 5G network, a drone fleet
can perform autonomous inventory
management operations inside a
warehouse, by means of dedicated
MEC and slice for Ultra-Low latency and
enhanced Mobile Broadband activities.
This represents a key turning point,
moving from today’s vertical and
fragmented solution, that will fit specific
use cases with a direct return of
investment, towards a more horizontal and
‘democratised’ robotics solution, where
more players will enter to develop more
and more efficient robots, applications
and enablers.
VERTICAL AND
FRAGMENTED
SOLUTION
‘DEMOCRATISED’
ROBOTICS
SOLUTION
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Data Plane
Control Plane
NR
EPC
LTE
Data Plane
Control Plane
EPC
LTE
5G Core
NR
5G ENABLERS’ AVAILABILITY
FOR ROBOTICS
The UGV and UAV fleet usage needs a 5G Cloud Robotics platform and enhanced
5G features to work correctly. In particular, the deployment of the following network
components, related to 5G Stand Alone architecture, is needed:
1. Radio Access with only gNodeB, that is the 5G Radio Access node (in the Stand-
Alone architecture no 4G anchor is employed).
2. Usage of massive MIMO with mmW/Small Cell combined access.
3. Multi-access edge computing placed near the access network.
4. 5G core network, fully cloud-native.
5. 5G E2E orchestrator in order to perform slice assignment and management.
Robot
U-plane 1 (Video transmission)
U-plane 2 (Robot control)
Base station
Edge Cloud Robot control server
Center Cloud The Internet Video server
AMF
SMF UPF
SMF
UPF
The 5G “Phase2”, starting from 3GPP Rel.17-18, started at the end of 2020, and it is likely
to end by 2022, in order to transform the 5G network from Non-Stand Alone (NSA, in
which the 4G anchor is present and the core network is EPC/vEPC) to 5G Stand Alone,
with the above-mentioned key features.
NON-STANDALONE STANDALONE
Many carriers are already working on these topics, especially in the EMEA region,
where a combination of sub-6GHz (i.e. 700MHz in Italy, for 5G outdoor coverage, the
extension will be released only at the end of 2022) and mmW will be used, and the
main 5G slices related to URLLC and eMBB will enable the use of robots and drone
fleets controlled through MEC via 5G network.
To fully exploit the benefits of adopting 5G cloud robotics on a large scale, there are still a
few open points.
Massive availability of 5G and the growth of new private networks (especially in Italy)
in order to enable a real Industry 4.0 with Mobile Private Network (MPN) dedicated
connectivity, for indoor applications (i.e. robots for logistics and collaborative robots for
industrial automation);
Concrete “cloud robotics” business growth by investing in future businesses that
will combine inter-operability between UGV and UAV with the U-Space model, due to
regulation and/or restrictions for autonomous movement and flight in BVLOS way;
Creation of a new Robot-as-a-Service (RaaS) integrated business model, in which
Neutral Hosts will use their infrastructure as drone/robots recharging stations, IoT inter-
operability between device and robots, robots’ ecosystem delivery and offering of new
use cases in a B2B or B2B2C way of delivery.
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CLOUD ROBOTICS
APPROACHES
Today different initiatives are running to enable the RaaS scenario, developing the
building blocks for the horizontal cloud robotics platform that will abstract robotics
applications from a single robot instance.
The ROS framework was designed to provide a common ground of understanding
to build such platforms on, through a collection of tools and libraries available.
While up to now most of the remote robot control offering is made of vertical,
proprietary, end-to-end, use case-specific platforms, some players are coming with
horizontal, hardware-independent cloud robotics platforms. On one side there are
the big cloud providers, such as Amazon AWS with Robomaker initiative, Google with
its Cloud Robotics Core and Microsoft which, despite not having a cloud robotics
platform is a major specific technology provider for the system integrators who want
to provide assets to this market.
On the otherside, there are some Telco operators, such as TIM in Italy with its Cloud
Robotics Infrastructure, which want to enrich their 5G offering with a set of enablers
dedicated to specific industries.
AWS RoboMaker
AWS RoboMaker is a service that extends
the Robot Operating System (ROS)
framework with cloud services. It includes
integration with AWS machine learning,
monitoring and analytics services, enabling
a robot to do several things on its own:
stream data, navigate, communicate,
comprehend, and learn.
AWS RoboMaker provides a fully managed
and scalable infrastructure for multi-robot
management, and a dedicated toolset for
simulation, including a robotics application
development environment and a robotics
simulation service, which speeds up
application testing.
Indeed, it enables the creation of hundreds
of new worlds from templates defined
using Simulation WorldForge and provides
a fleet management service to deploy and
manage applications remotely.
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LONG & BUNDLES PROFILING
AWS CLOUD
LONG & BUNDLES
Robot
Application
Bundles
Simulation
Logs
Robot
Logs
Metrics Errors
!
Amazon S3 Amazon
CloudWatch
AWS
Greengrass
AWS RoboMaker
Fleet Management
AWS RoboMaker
Simulation
AWS IoT
Greengrass
Core
Deployment
Code
Robot
Application

Google Cloud Robotics Core
Google Cloud Robotics Core is an open-
source platform that provides essential
infrastructure for building and running
robotics solutions for business automation.
Cloud Robotics Core enables developers,
integrators and operators to manage their
robot fleets with ease, since it includes:
• Packaging and distribution of
applications.
• Secure, bidirectional robot-cloud
communication.
• Easy access to Google Cloud services
such as ML, logging, and monitoring.
Cloud Robotics Core builds upon standard Kubernetes management tools and several
open-source packages. It is structured into several layers that address distinct needs:
Kubernetes on Robot it allows containerised workload deployments onto the robot,
with ROS running inside the container.
Robot Fleet Connectivity and Security it provides secure communication and access
control. It also provides a pattern for command and control that is robust against
intermittent connectivity.
App Management it consists of one or more Docker containers and associated
resources, running on the robot and in the cloud. The App management layer
determines which Apps, and app components, run on robots and in the cloud.
Managed Repositories it adds the capability to download Apps from remote
repositories.
TIM Cloud Robotic Infrastructure
TIM Cloud Robotics Infrastructure is a
cloud robotics platform developed by the
Tim Innovation Lab and is based entirely
on the ROS paradigm.
It is characterised by the flexibility to allow
the execution of the ‘digital clone’ of the
physical robot entirely, either in the cloud,
or on the robot or in a hybrid way, thus
making it suitable for both large and costly
professional robots, which typically can
accommodate a lot of on-board power
processing, both for much simpler, lighter
robots with little processing capacity,
for which it is essential to transfer all the
digital control to the cloud.
In May 2019, TIM was already able to
demonstrate, on an experimental level, a
monitoring and inspection use case using
rovers and drones, both fully remotely
controlled, via TIM’s 5G network and the
use of its Cloud Robotics Infrastructure.
App Management and Managed Repositories are currently under development.
Cloud Robotics is not integrated with Google Cloud Platform yet, but it can be set
up as a GCP project with Cloud Robotics components.
REPLY ROBOTICS SOLUTION
Reply Robotics Solution helps operators, facilities/plant, and innovation lab
managers of commercial companies (i.e., retail & utility spaces, warehouses, smart
spaces, manufacturing, etc.), in designing missions with built in use cases, like
autonomous remote inspection of assets, assigning tasks based on robot payloads
and pushing data to the cloud through 4G/5G connectivity for analysis and decision
support, all from one central platform.
Customers who use Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs), indeed, often deal with
robots from multiple vendors and their different software platforms, and this makes
it hard to manage and leverage robots for multiple mission types, e.g. inspections,
damage detection, data capture, vision and AI, and so on. Reply’s fleet management
solution leverages a Robot OS abstraction layer to simplify AMR management,
mission design, and data collection.
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Applications
Robots
CloudRoboticsCore
App Management
Resource Federation
Applications
CloudRoboticsCore
App Mgt. & Rollouts
Robot Identities
3rd Party Cloud

REPLY IS FACING THE CHALLENGE OF
DEMOCRATISING ROBOTICS SOLUTIONS
Reply is actively moving from today’s vertical and fragmented solution to more
horizontal and ‘democratised’ robotics solution is the challenge for the years to come:
many players will enter this landscape to develop more and more efficient robots,
applications and enablers.
Leveraging on its strong know-how and partnership with cloud providers, telco
operators, and players in the robotic industry, Reply can support its customer strategy
in the robotics adoption journey, moving from first use cases, which can adopt
vertical technologies specific for the robot in use, to a platform approach that allows
applications to be “robot-independent”, thus enabling the rise of a larger set of
applications and ecosystem.
As an example, Reply is helping a large telco operator to trial UAV and UGV
fleets, both remotely controlled using current and upcoming 5G network releases,
leveraging on cloud robotics infrastructure deployed at the edge of the network. In
this scenario, terrestrial and aerial robots are not only managed remotely as a whole
fleet, but are also easily interchangeable thanks to the abstraction layer provided by
the cloud robotic platform.
The solution brings together the complete robot fleet, automatically detects their
attached payloads, and allows operators to design missions graphically with built
in use cases based on the robot capabilities. It supports various payload types and
sensors that tie directly into the CPU or as external add ons. Pre-packaged use
cases include Data Upload to the Cloud, Synchronized Navigation, Vision Cognition
and Detection, and more.
The key Microsoft Azure component used is Azure IoT Hub. Through this, it is
possible to receive sensor/payload data synchronized from the Robot OS. In
addition, Azure Functions store the data in Azure SQL and execute the processing
pipeline with AI/ML and Azure App Services powers the management experience.
Power BI dashboards can be also integrated for specific use cases analytics.
Microsoft Azure allows Reply Robotics solution to aggregate, analyze and react in
real-time and in particular enables:
• Integration to upload solution telemetry
• Storage to scale solutions without latency
• Visualization to surface solution insights
• Predictive Maintenance & Analytics
• Security to protect solution’s data
• Advanced navigation
• Telepresence capabilities
• Communication between vendor independent robots and sensors
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