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EHN 617: Applied Ecology
Sustaining Biodiversity:
The Species Approach
5-1 What Are the Trends in Species
Extinction?

• Concept 5-1 The current rate of species extinction is
at least 100 times the rate that existed before
modern humans arrived on earth, and is expected to
increase to 1.000-10,000 times that background rate
during this century.
Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes
They Increase Sharply (1)

• Biological extinction

– No species member alive

• Background extinction
– Natural low rate of extinction (0.0001% per year – or 1 per
million species per year)

• Extinction rate
– Percentage or number of species that go extinct in a certain
time period
Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes
They Increase Sharply (2)
• Mass extinction
– 5 events
– 50-95% of species became extinct
– Millions of years to return to previous levels of biodiversity

• Levels of species extinction
– Local extinction
– Ecological extinction
– Biological extinction
Species Prematurely Extinct because of
Human Activities

Passenger
pigeon

Great auk

Dodo

Golden toad

Aepyornis
(Madagascar)

Fig. 5-1, p. 93
Case Study: The Passenger Pigeon: Gone
Forever
• Once one of the world’s most abundant birds
• Audubon: flock took 3 days to fly over

• Passenger pigeon hunted to extinction by 1900
–
–
–
–

Habitat loss
Commercial hunting
Easy to kill: flew in large flocks and nested in dense colonies
One person made $60,000 by killing 3M birds (1878)
Some Human Activities Are Causing
Extinctions
• Human activity has disturbed at least half of the earth’s
land surface
– Fills in wetlands
– Converts grasslands and forests to crop fields and urban areas
– Pollution of land and water
Extinction Rates Are Rising Rapidly (1)
• Current extinction rate is at least 100 times higher than
typical background rate of .0001%
• Will rise to 10,000 times the background rate by the end
of the century
– Rate will rise to 1% per year
– Cause ¼ to ½ of the world’s plant and animal species to vanish
Extinction Rates Are Rising Rapidly (2)
• Conservative estimates of extinction = 0.01-1.0%
– Growth of human population will increase this loss
– Rates are higher where there are more endangered species
– Tropical forests and coral reefs, wetlands and estuaries—sites
of new species—being destroyed

• Speciation crisis
Endangered and Threatened Species Are
Ecological Smoke Alarms (1)
• Endangered species
– So few members that the species could soon become extinct

• Threatened species (vulnerable species)
– Still enough members to survive, but numbers declining -- may
soon be endangered

• http://www.iucnredlist.org
Endangered Natural Capital: Species
Threatened with Premature Extinction

Grizzly bear

Kirkland’s
warbler

Knowlton
cactus

Florida
manatee

African
elephant

Utah prairie dog

Swallowtail
butterfly

Humpback
chub

Golden lion
tamarin

Siberian tiger
Fig. 5-2a, p. 95
Giant panda

Mountain
gorilla

Black-footed
ferret

Whooping
crane

Northern
spotted owl

Florida panther

California
condor

Hawksbill
sea turtle

Blue whale

Black
rhinoceros
Fig. 5-2a, p. 95
Endangered and Threatened Species Are
Ecological Smoke Alarms (2)
• Characteristics
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

Big
Slow
Tasty
Valuable parts
Behaviors that make them easy to kill
Low reproductive rate
Specialized niche
Fixed migratory patterns
Characteristic
Low reproductive rate
Specialized niche

Characteristics of
Species That Are
Prone to Ecological
and Biological
Extinction

Examples
Blue whale, giant
panda, rhinoceros
Blue whale, giant panda,
Everglades kite

Narrow distribution

Elephant seal, desert
pupfish

Feeds at high trophic
level

Bengal tiger, bald eagle,
grizzly bear

Fixed migratory
patterns
Rare
Commercially
valuable
Large territories

Blue whale, whooping
crane, sea turtle
African violet, some
orchids
Snow
leopard, tiger, elephant, rhi
noceros, rare plants and
birds
California condor, grizzly
bear, Florida panther
Fig. 5-3, p. 96
Plants

70%
34% (37% of freshwater species)

Fishes

Amphibians

30%

Reptiles

28%

Mammals

Birds

12%

21%

Endangered
Natural Capital
Science Focus: Estimating Extinction Rates
• Three problems
1. Hard to document due to length of time
2. Only 1.9 million species identified (of estimated 8-100
million!)
3. Little known about nature and ecological roles of species
identified

• Approaches
1. Study extinction rates over last 10,000 years and then
compare with the fossil record
2. Use species–area relationship (90% loss in habitat causes a
50% extinction of species living in the area)
3. Mathematical models
5-2 Why Should We Care about the Rising Rate of
Species Extinction?
• Concept 5-2 We should avoid speeding up the extinction
of wild species because of the economic and ecological
services they provide, and because many people believe
they have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to
us.
Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s
Natural Capital (1)
• 3 reasons to prevent extinctions
1. Species provide natural resources and natural services –
instrumental value
–
–
–
–

Insects for pollination
Birds for pest control
Plants for food, fuel, lumber, medicine
Ecotourism (eg. One male lion to age 7 = $0.5M in tourist
revenue, but only $1000 if killed for skin)
Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s
Natural Capital (2)
2. Genetic information in diverse species
3. It will take 5-10 million years to regain species
biodiversity lost this century
Natural Capital: Nature’s Pharmacy
Pacific yew
Taxus brevifolia,
Pacific Northwest
Ovarian cancer

Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia sepentina,
Southeast Asia
Anxiety, high blood pressure
Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea,
Europe
Digitalis for heart failure

Cinchona
Cinchona ledogeriana,
South America
Quinine for malaria treatment

Rosy periwinkle
Cathranthus roseus,
Madagascar
Hodgkin's disease,
lymphocytic leukemia

Neem tree
Azadirachta indica,
India
Treatment of many
diseases, insecticide,
spermicide
Fig. 5-4, p. 97
Are We Ethically Obligated to Prevent
Premature Extinction?
• Intrinsic value: existence value
– Inherent right to exist
– We have an ethical obligation to protect species
– But which species should we protect?
5-3 How do Humans Accelerate
Species Extinction?
• Concept 5-3 The greatest threats to any species are (in
order) loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful invasive
species, human population growth, pollution, climate
change, and overexploitation.
Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest
Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO
•
•
•
•
•
•

Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation
Invasive (nonnative) species
Population and resource use growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation
Habitat Fragmentation
• Habitat fragmentation
– Large intact habitat divided by roads, crops, urban
development
– Leaves habitat islands
– Blocks migration routes
– Divides populations
– Inhibits migrations and colonization
– Inhibits finding food

• National parks and nature reserves as habitat islands
(fresh water lakes?)
Causes of Depletion and Premature
Extinction of World Species
Underlying causes
• Population growth
• Rising resource use

• Undervaluing natural capital
• Poverty

Direct causes

• Habitat loss

• Pollution

• Commercial hunting and poaching

• Habitat degradation and fragmentation • Climate change • Sale of exotic pets and decorative plants
• Introduction of nonnative species

• Overfishing

• Predator and pest control

Fig. 5-5, p. 99
Natural
Capital
Degradation:
Reduction in
the Ranges
of Four
Wildlife
Species
Range 100 years ago

Range today
Fig. 5-6a, p. 100
Black Rhino

Range in 1700
Range today
Fig. 5-6b, p. 100
African Elephant

Probable range 1600
Range today
Fig. 5-6c, p. 100
Asian or Indian Elephant

Former range
Range today
Fig. 5-6d, p. 100
Some Deliberately Introduced Species Can
Disrupt Ecosystems
• Most species introductions are beneficial
–
–
–
–

Food
Shelter
Medicine
Aesthetic enjoyment

• Nonnative species may have no natural
–
–
–
–

Predators
Competitors
Parasites
Pathogens
Some Harmful Nonnative Species
in the United States
Deliberately Introduced Species

Purple loosestrife

Marine toad (Giant toad)

European starling

Water hyacinth

African honeybee (“Killer
bee”)

Japanese beetle

Nutria

Hydrilla

Salt cedar (Tamarisk)

European wild boar (Feral
pig) Fig. 5-7, p. 101
Accidentally Introduced Species

Sea lamprey (attached to
lake trout)

Formosan termite

Argentina fire ant

Zebra mussel

Brown tree snake

Eurasian ruffe

Asian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito

Common pigeon (Rock
dove)

Gypsy moth larvae
Fig. 5-7, p. 101
Invasive Species: Argentina Fire Ant

Fig. 5-8, p. 102
Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can
Also Disrupt Ecosystems
• Argentina fire ant: 1930s
– Reduced populations of native ants
– Painful stings can kill
– Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened
conditions
– 2009: tiny parasitic flies may help control fire ants
Case Study: Snakes in the Everglades
• Burmese and African pythons dumped in Everglades by
people
• Tens of thousands now in Everglades
• Kill many animals, including alligators
• Could spread to other swampy wetlands in South
Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce
Threats from Invasive Species
•
•
•
•
•
•

Prevent them from becoming established
Learn the characteristics of the species
Set up research programs
Try to find natural ways to control them
International treaties
Public education
Characteristics of Successful Invader
Species and Vulnerable Ecosystems

Fig. 5-9, p. 102
What Can You
Do?
Controlling
Invasive
Species

Fig. 5-10, p. 103
Other Causes of Species Extinction (1)
• Human population growth
• Overconsumption
– Ecological footprint

• Pollution
• Climate change
Other Causes of Species Extinction (2)
• Pesticides
– DDT: Banned in the U.S. in 1972

• Bioaccumulation
• Biomagnification
Bioaccumulation and
Biomagnification

DDT in fish-eating
birds (ospreys)
25 ppm

DDT in large fish
(needle fish)
2 ppm
DDT in small
fish (minnows)
0.5 ppm

DDT in water
0.000003
ppm, or 3 ppt

DDT in
zooplankton
0.04 ppm
Case Study: Polar Bears and
Global Warming
• 20,000-25,000 in the Arctic (19 populations)
• Most calories in winter from seals on sea ice
• Environmental impact on polar bears
– Less summer sea ice from global warming
– Could be gone from wild by 2100

• 2008: Threatened species list. 2050?
Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of
Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity
• Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants
– Animal parts
– Pets
– Plants for landscaping and enjoyment

• Prevention: research and education
– Ecotourism: Thailand, Great Indian Hornbills  poachers
Case Study: A Disturbing Message
from the Birds (1)
• 1/3 of 800 bird species in U.S. are endangered or
threatened
• Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds’ breeding
habitats
– Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads, and
development

• Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative
species
– Eat the birds (eg. Bird eating rats)
Case Study: A Disturbing Message
from the Birds (2)
• Seabirds caught and drown in fishing equipment
• Migrating birds fly into power lines, communication
towers, and skyscrapers
• Other threats
–
–
–
–

Oil spills
Pesticides
Herbicides
Ingestion of toxic lead shotgun pellets
Case Study: A Disturbing Message
from the Birds (3)
• Greatest new threat: Climate change
• Environmental indicators
– Birds live in every biome and climate

• Economic and ecological services
Distribution of Bird Species in the Americas

Fig. 5-12, p. 105
5-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Extinction
Resulting from Our Activities?

• Concept 5-4 We can reduce the rising rate of species
extinction and help to protect overall biodiversity by
establishing and enforcing national environmental laws
and international treaties, creating a variety of
protected wildlife sanctuaries, and taking precautionary
measures to prevent such harm.
International Treaties and National Laws
Help to Protect Species
• 1975: Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES)
– Signed by 172 countries

• Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD)
– Focuses on ecosystems
– Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)

• Enforcement problems
Endangered Species Act
• Endangered Species Act (ESA): 1973 and later amended
in 1982, 1985, and 1988
• Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and
abroad

• National Marine Fisheries Service for ocean species
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for all others
Endangered Species Act (2)
• Forbids federal agencies (except Defense) from funding
or authorizing projects that jeopardize endangered or
threatened species

• 2010: 1,370 species officially listed
• USFWS and NMFS prepare recovery plans
• Incentives for private property owners
Science Focus: Accomplishments of the
Endangered Species Act (1)
• Four reasons ESA not a failure for removing only 46
species from endangered list
1. Species listed only when in serious danger
2. Takes decades to help endangered species
3. Conditions for more than half of listed species are stable or
improving
4. 2010: spend only 9 cents per American
Science Focus: Accomplishments of the
Endangered Species Act (2)
• Three ways to improve ESA
1. Greatly increase funding
2. Develop recovery plans more quickly
3. When a species is first listed, establish the core of its
habitat that’s critical for survival

• New law needed to focus on sustaining biodiversity and
ecosystem health
We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges
and Other Protected Areas
• 1903: Theodore Roosevelt
• Wildlife refuges
– Most are wetland sanctuaries
– More needed for endangered plants
– Could abandoned military lands be used for wildlife habitats?
Gene Banks, Botanical Gardens, and
Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species
• Gene or seed banks
– Preserve genetic material of endangered plants

• Botanical gardens and arboreta
– Living plants
– 3% of the world’s rare and threatened species, little funding

• Farms to raise organisms for commercial sale
• Arctic storage site: power, weather, war.
Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect
Some Species
• Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species
– Egg pulling
– Captive breeding

• Goal of ultimately releasing/reintroducing populations
to the wild
• Limited space and funds
We Can Use the Principles of
Sustainability to Protect Species
• Species: primary components of biodiversity
• Preservation of species
• Preservation of ecosystems
• Need to reduce our ecological footprints

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Lecture 5 (1)

  • 1. EHN 617: Applied Ecology Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach
  • 2. 5-1 What Are the Trends in Species Extinction? • Concept 5-1 The current rate of species extinction is at least 100 times the rate that existed before modern humans arrived on earth, and is expected to increase to 1.000-10,000 times that background rate during this century.
  • 3. Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply (1) • Biological extinction – No species member alive • Background extinction – Natural low rate of extinction (0.0001% per year – or 1 per million species per year) • Extinction rate – Percentage or number of species that go extinct in a certain time period
  • 4. Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply (2) • Mass extinction – 5 events – 50-95% of species became extinct – Millions of years to return to previous levels of biodiversity • Levels of species extinction – Local extinction – Ecological extinction – Biological extinction
  • 5. Species Prematurely Extinct because of Human Activities Passenger pigeon Great auk Dodo Golden toad Aepyornis (Madagascar) Fig. 5-1, p. 93
  • 6. Case Study: The Passenger Pigeon: Gone Forever • Once one of the world’s most abundant birds • Audubon: flock took 3 days to fly over • Passenger pigeon hunted to extinction by 1900 – – – – Habitat loss Commercial hunting Easy to kill: flew in large flocks and nested in dense colonies One person made $60,000 by killing 3M birds (1878)
  • 7. Some Human Activities Are Causing Extinctions • Human activity has disturbed at least half of the earth’s land surface – Fills in wetlands – Converts grasslands and forests to crop fields and urban areas – Pollution of land and water
  • 8. Extinction Rates Are Rising Rapidly (1) • Current extinction rate is at least 100 times higher than typical background rate of .0001% • Will rise to 10,000 times the background rate by the end of the century – Rate will rise to 1% per year – Cause ¼ to ½ of the world’s plant and animal species to vanish
  • 9. Extinction Rates Are Rising Rapidly (2) • Conservative estimates of extinction = 0.01-1.0% – Growth of human population will increase this loss – Rates are higher where there are more endangered species – Tropical forests and coral reefs, wetlands and estuaries—sites of new species—being destroyed • Speciation crisis
  • 10. Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms (1) • Endangered species – So few members that the species could soon become extinct • Threatened species (vulnerable species) – Still enough members to survive, but numbers declining -- may soon be endangered • http://www.iucnredlist.org
  • 11. Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature Extinction Grizzly bear Kirkland’s warbler Knowlton cactus Florida manatee African elephant Utah prairie dog Swallowtail butterfly Humpback chub Golden lion tamarin Siberian tiger Fig. 5-2a, p. 95
  • 12. Giant panda Mountain gorilla Black-footed ferret Whooping crane Northern spotted owl Florida panther California condor Hawksbill sea turtle Blue whale Black rhinoceros Fig. 5-2a, p. 95
  • 13. Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms (2) • Characteristics – – – – – – – – Big Slow Tasty Valuable parts Behaviors that make them easy to kill Low reproductive rate Specialized niche Fixed migratory patterns
  • 14. Characteristic Low reproductive rate Specialized niche Characteristics of Species That Are Prone to Ecological and Biological Extinction Examples Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Narrow distribution Elephant seal, desert pupfish Feeds at high trophic level Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Fixed migratory patterns Rare Commercially valuable Large territories Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtle African violet, some orchids Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhi noceros, rare plants and birds California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Fig. 5-3, p. 96
  • 15. Plants 70% 34% (37% of freshwater species) Fishes Amphibians 30% Reptiles 28% Mammals Birds 12% 21% Endangered Natural Capital
  • 16. Science Focus: Estimating Extinction Rates • Three problems 1. Hard to document due to length of time 2. Only 1.9 million species identified (of estimated 8-100 million!) 3. Little known about nature and ecological roles of species identified • Approaches 1. Study extinction rates over last 10,000 years and then compare with the fossil record 2. Use species–area relationship (90% loss in habitat causes a 50% extinction of species living in the area) 3. Mathematical models
  • 17. 5-2 Why Should We Care about the Rising Rate of Species Extinction? • Concept 5-2 We should avoid speeding up the extinction of wild species because of the economic and ecological services they provide, and because many people believe they have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us.
  • 18. Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (1) • 3 reasons to prevent extinctions 1. Species provide natural resources and natural services – instrumental value – – – – Insects for pollination Birds for pest control Plants for food, fuel, lumber, medicine Ecotourism (eg. One male lion to age 7 = $0.5M in tourist revenue, but only $1000 if killed for skin)
  • 19. Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (2) 2. Genetic information in diverse species 3. It will take 5-10 million years to regain species biodiversity lost this century
  • 20. Natural Capital: Nature’s Pharmacy Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer Rauvolfia Rauvolfia sepentina, Southeast Asia Anxiety, high blood pressure Foxglove Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure Cinchona Cinchona ledogeriana, South America Quinine for malaria treatment Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus, Madagascar Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia Neem tree Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicide Fig. 5-4, p. 97
  • 21. Are We Ethically Obligated to Prevent Premature Extinction? • Intrinsic value: existence value – Inherent right to exist – We have an ethical obligation to protect species – But which species should we protect?
  • 22. 5-3 How do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction? • Concept 5-3 The greatest threats to any species are (in order) loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful invasive species, human population growth, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation.
  • 23. Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO • • • • • • Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation Invasive (nonnative) species Population and resource use growth Pollution Climate change Overexploitation
  • 24. Habitat Fragmentation • Habitat fragmentation – Large intact habitat divided by roads, crops, urban development – Leaves habitat islands – Blocks migration routes – Divides populations – Inhibits migrations and colonization – Inhibits finding food • National parks and nature reserves as habitat islands (fresh water lakes?)
  • 25. Causes of Depletion and Premature Extinction of World Species Underlying causes • Population growth • Rising resource use • Undervaluing natural capital • Poverty Direct causes • Habitat loss • Pollution • Commercial hunting and poaching • Habitat degradation and fragmentation • Climate change • Sale of exotic pets and decorative plants • Introduction of nonnative species • Overfishing • Predator and pest control Fig. 5-5, p. 99
  • 26. Natural Capital Degradation: Reduction in the Ranges of Four Wildlife Species Range 100 years ago Range today Fig. 5-6a, p. 100
  • 27. Black Rhino Range in 1700 Range today Fig. 5-6b, p. 100
  • 28. African Elephant Probable range 1600 Range today Fig. 5-6c, p. 100
  • 29. Asian or Indian Elephant Former range Range today Fig. 5-6d, p. 100
  • 30. Some Deliberately Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems • Most species introductions are beneficial – – – – Food Shelter Medicine Aesthetic enjoyment • Nonnative species may have no natural – – – – Predators Competitors Parasites Pathogens
  • 31. Some Harmful Nonnative Species in the United States Deliberately Introduced Species Purple loosestrife Marine toad (Giant toad) European starling Water hyacinth African honeybee (“Killer bee”) Japanese beetle Nutria Hydrilla Salt cedar (Tamarisk) European wild boar (Feral pig) Fig. 5-7, p. 101
  • 32. Accidentally Introduced Species Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Formosan termite Argentina fire ant Zebra mussel Brown tree snake Eurasian ruffe Asian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Common pigeon (Rock dove) Gypsy moth larvae Fig. 5-7, p. 101
  • 33. Invasive Species: Argentina Fire Ant Fig. 5-8, p. 102
  • 34. Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Also Disrupt Ecosystems • Argentina fire ant: 1930s – Reduced populations of native ants – Painful stings can kill – Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened conditions – 2009: tiny parasitic flies may help control fire ants
  • 35. Case Study: Snakes in the Everglades • Burmese and African pythons dumped in Everglades by people • Tens of thousands now in Everglades • Kill many animals, including alligators • Could spread to other swampy wetlands in South
  • 36. Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce Threats from Invasive Species • • • • • • Prevent them from becoming established Learn the characteristics of the species Set up research programs Try to find natural ways to control them International treaties Public education
  • 37. Characteristics of Successful Invader Species and Vulnerable Ecosystems Fig. 5-9, p. 102
  • 39. Other Causes of Species Extinction (1) • Human population growth • Overconsumption – Ecological footprint • Pollution • Climate change
  • 40. Other Causes of Species Extinction (2) • Pesticides – DDT: Banned in the U.S. in 1972 • Bioaccumulation • Biomagnification
  • 41. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys) 25 ppm DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm DDT in water 0.000003 ppm, or 3 ppt DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm
  • 42. Case Study: Polar Bears and Global Warming • 20,000-25,000 in the Arctic (19 populations) • Most calories in winter from seals on sea ice • Environmental impact on polar bears – Less summer sea ice from global warming – Could be gone from wild by 2100 • 2008: Threatened species list. 2050?
  • 43. Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity • Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants – Animal parts – Pets – Plants for landscaping and enjoyment • Prevention: research and education – Ecotourism: Thailand, Great Indian Hornbills  poachers
  • 44. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (1) • 1/3 of 800 bird species in U.S. are endangered or threatened • Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds’ breeding habitats – Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads, and development • Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative species – Eat the birds (eg. Bird eating rats)
  • 45. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (2) • Seabirds caught and drown in fishing equipment • Migrating birds fly into power lines, communication towers, and skyscrapers • Other threats – – – – Oil spills Pesticides Herbicides Ingestion of toxic lead shotgun pellets
  • 46. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (3) • Greatest new threat: Climate change • Environmental indicators – Birds live in every biome and climate • Economic and ecological services
  • 47. Distribution of Bird Species in the Americas Fig. 5-12, p. 105
  • 48. 5-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Extinction Resulting from Our Activities? • Concept 5-4 We can reduce the rising rate of species extinction and help to protect overall biodiversity by establishing and enforcing national environmental laws and international treaties, creating a variety of protected wildlife sanctuaries, and taking precautionary measures to prevent such harm.
  • 49. International Treaties and National Laws Help to Protect Species • 1975: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) – Signed by 172 countries • Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD) – Focuses on ecosystems – Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.) • Enforcement problems
  • 50. Endangered Species Act • Endangered Species Act (ESA): 1973 and later amended in 1982, 1985, and 1988 • Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad • National Marine Fisheries Service for ocean species • U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for all others
  • 51. Endangered Species Act (2) • Forbids federal agencies (except Defense) from funding or authorizing projects that jeopardize endangered or threatened species • 2010: 1,370 species officially listed • USFWS and NMFS prepare recovery plans • Incentives for private property owners
  • 52. Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (1) • Four reasons ESA not a failure for removing only 46 species from endangered list 1. Species listed only when in serious danger 2. Takes decades to help endangered species 3. Conditions for more than half of listed species are stable or improving 4. 2010: spend only 9 cents per American
  • 53. Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (2) • Three ways to improve ESA 1. Greatly increase funding 2. Develop recovery plans more quickly 3. When a species is first listed, establish the core of its habitat that’s critical for survival • New law needed to focus on sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem health
  • 54. We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas • 1903: Theodore Roosevelt • Wildlife refuges – Most are wetland sanctuaries – More needed for endangered plants – Could abandoned military lands be used for wildlife habitats?
  • 55. Gene Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species • Gene or seed banks – Preserve genetic material of endangered plants • Botanical gardens and arboreta – Living plants – 3% of the world’s rare and threatened species, little funding • Farms to raise organisms for commercial sale • Arctic storage site: power, weather, war.
  • 56. Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species • Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species – Egg pulling – Captive breeding • Goal of ultimately releasing/reintroducing populations to the wild • Limited space and funds
  • 57. We Can Use the Principles of Sustainability to Protect Species • Species: primary components of biodiversity • Preservation of species • Preservation of ecosystems • Need to reduce our ecological footprints