1. Sudan
Brief historical overview of pre-colonial
period to independence

2. Outline
• Early history
• Christian kingdoms
• Islamization and
Arabization
• Turkiyya and
Mahdiyya
• British rule
• Independence
• Islamist rule: 1989-present
• Civil war in Southern
Sudan
• Darfur

3. Early History
• Numerous Nubian kingdoms along the Nile:
Kingdoms of Kush (Cush), known from pottery
and Egyptian records
• Kush conquers Egypt (743bc and rule until
644bc). Largest unified state in the world at the
time. Assyrians drive Kush pharoah Taharqo
back to 4th
cataract (Napata/Merowe)
• Arabs conquer Egypt 640ad. Treaty of baqt in
641ad with Nubia: Interpretation disputed, but
seems to involve tribute from Nubia to Egypt

4. Christian Kingdoms in
Medieval Times
• Alwa, Makuria and Nobatia - three small kingdoms
Christianized by 580ad
• Merge into Kingdom of Dongola, which survives as
Nubian Christian kingdom until 1323ad; written
records (in Greek) of emissaries from Church and of
relations with Caliphs in Damascus attest to important
power of Nubia, and tombstones (in Greek) are found
in archeological digs
• Famous frescoes discovered in churches along the Nile
when UNICEF rescued archeological treasures after
flooding by Aswan High Dam

7. Conversion to Islam and Shift to
Arab Identity/Genealogies
• Process occurred slowly, no conquest or sharp
turn, but continual (that is, over centuries,
though with long periods of peace) conflict
between Egypt and Arabs crossing from Red Sea
• Holymen, merchants, and camel herders came
from Arabia and the Maghreb
(Egypt/Libya/Tunisia/Morocco) and settled in
Sudan
• Pilgrims came from West Africa on the overland
route of the hajj
• Local rulers convert to Islam, as does local
population

8. Kingdom of Sennar (Funj)
• A group known as the Funj conquer the
knigdom of Alwa (capital at Soba on the Blue
Nile) in 1504
• Establish Kingdom of Sennar, rules much of
central Sudan (but not Dongola) until 1821
• Established court bureaucracy and left a
substantial amount of written records
• European travelers first visited in 1700s and
recorded court customs

9. Egyptian conquest: 1821
• Mohamed Ali ruler of Egypt, nominally a
province of Ottoman Empire, but practically
autonomous; Egyptian forces successfully
conquer much of modern-day Sudan
• By many accounts, motive and rule is purely
“extractive”: slaves, ivory, ostrich feathers,
taxes are sent back to Egypt
• Northern, Muslim, residents of Nile basin,
and European adventurers and traders
participate in exploitation of Southern regions
• Beginning of Syrian and Lebanese diaspora in
Sudan – clerks and military in Turkiyya, as
Egyptian rule is known

10. Mahdist revolt and Mahdiyya:
1881-1898
• The oppression of Egyptian rule (the
Turkiyya) leads many to join a holyman
named Mohamed Ahmed, who declares
himself to be the Mahdi (“the expected one”)
in revolt
• In 1885 defeat British forces in Khartoum
• The Mahdi dies shortly thereafter, and
successor Khalifa Abdullahi rules

12. British Conquest and Rule: 1898-1956
• British conquer Mahdiyya in revenge for defeat
and death of British General Charles Gordon in
Khartoum, and to protect southern flank of
Egypt (now under British control) and Suez
Canal
• Rule Sudan in co-domini (the Condominium)
with Egypt, though British rule through elite
Sudan political Service
• Conquer Darfur in 1916
• In reaction to British rule, “Sudanese” identity
and Sudanese nationalism is developed

14. British Rule North Sudan
• Indirect rule: Built up authority of different
tribal leaders (Nazir and omda and sheikh)
– If no convenient tribe, then created one by
amalgamating smaller tribes
• Cultivated close relationships with religious
leaders (descendants of Mahdi and Khatmiyya);
the families of those leaders are still the most
important ruling families in Sudan
• Promoted more schooling in the North – Gordon
College – and encouraged a growing Sudanese
civil service to replace Egyptians

15. British Rule – South Sudan
• More direct rule by British District
Commissioner (so-called Bog Barons)
• Southern Policy initiated 1922
•Ostensibly to stop southern groups from
domination by northerners
•English and not Arabic became formal language
•Christian missionary education promoted
•Northern merchants kicked out
•Wearing of northern Sudanese jellabiya
discouraged