Chapter 10

1. Unity, Balance, Scale & Proportion, Contrast,
Emphasis & Repetition & Rhythm
Principles of 3-D Design
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2. Principles of 3-D Design
Composition: Combination of multiple parts into a unified whole
using elements and principles of design.
Cornerstones of visual communication: Unity & Variety
UNITY: Similarity, oneness, or wholeness, in a design that
occurs when all parts work together to create a cohesive whole.
VARIETY: Sense of differences.
As one element becomes dominant, another element becomes subordinate, creating a dialog between
positive and negative forms, as seen in figure 10.2. Every element is both dependent on and supportive of
each other element. The principles of design describe in which the elements of design can be combined.
The outer edge (format) of a composition defines the design.
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3. Increasing Unity: Grouping
 Containment
 Proximity
 Continuity
 Repetition
 Closure
 Combining Unifying Forces
Grouping: We generally group visual units by location, orientation, shape, and color.
Containment: The format, or boundary, creates unity and determines positive and negative space (vertical,
horizontal, circular, etc.).
Proximity: Distance between visual units. Unity and compositional energy increases with close proximity
(abutting, transparency, mutual tension, etc.).
Continuity: Creates a fluid connection among compositional parts (eye direction and focal points).
Repetition: Occurs when we use the same element or effect over and over.
Closure: Implication completed in the mind can be more powerful than specification. Figure 10.7 requires
viewers to visually connect individual pieces of hardware in order to see a man’s face.
Combining unifying forces: Figure 10.8 uses all of these unifying forces to demonstrate the number of lives
lost in one Polish village while honoring the individuality of the inhabitants. Included are thousands of
individual and grouped photographs, placed in close proximity to emphasize their connection to the lost
community. Based on the chimneys used to burn the bodies, the tower itself provides the dominant
structure for the exhibition, both structurally and emotionally.
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4. Unity and Variety
 Increasing Variety
 Degrees of Unity
 Grid and Matrix
Difference in any element of a design increases variety. Figure 10.9 provides an
example of variation in line, texture, and pattern. Our compositional choices must
support our conceptual intentions. Some designs require a high level of unity, while
other designs require a high level of variety.
A grid is created through a series of intersecting lines. A matrix, seen in figure 10.13,
is a three-dimensional grid. Both can unify a design by creating containment,
continuity, proximity, and encouraging closure. 4

5. Balance
Balance: Distribution of weight or force among visual
units.
1.Symmetrical: Mirrored imagery on either side of a central axis.
2.Radial: Images are mirrored both vertically and horizontally
from a central point.
3.Asymmetrical: Equilibrium in imagery that is not mirrored.
In 3-D design physical balance is a structural necessity, while a degree of visual balance is an
aesthetic necessity. Especially in 3-D design, visual balance can be created through the
absence as well as the presence of form. Each type of balance has its advantages, depending
on the idea you want to express. Symmetrical design can communicate calm and stability.
Radial balance tends to pull or push the viewer toward the center of the composition. A
spiral can increase energy and add movement. Depending on the degree of asymmetry, a
design can be stable, dynamic, or nearly chaotic, and creates the greatest visual interest.
Balance shifts each time an element is added, subtracted, or altered, dependent on size,
location, weight, value, and texture relationships. There are even cases in which a degree of
imbalance is necessary, particularly when combined with dramatic or tense concepts.
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6. Balance
 Dominant and Subordinate Forms
 Weight, Gravity, and Buoyancy
A dominant or primary form is often balanced by one or more subordinate, or secondary forms.
In figure 10.18, the large head on the left is balanced by the column and fragmentary heads on
the right. The seven smaller figures create a compositional hierarchy. The compositional forces
that most influence visual weight are size, value, type of shape, texture, location, and
orientation. The context strongly affects each of these forces. Compare the images of St. Bruno.
Figure 10.19 uses asymmetrical balance to express a dramatic moment. The small bishop’s hat
becomes the focal point, and matches the compositional weight of the saint, as he recoils from
the offer of a promotion. Houdon uses symmetrical balance in order to emphasize the
contemplative nature of the saint, who is at peace with the choices he has made (figure 10.20).
Visual weight refers to the inclination of shapes to float or sink based on their solidity (solid
shapes generally weigh more than open shapes); their compositional location (shapes that
appear to extend in the upper right tend to rise, and vice versa); and orientation (static and
dynamic). Shapes that extend affect weight also. Compare figures 10.21 and 10.22 and the use
of, or seeming denial of, gravity.
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7. Scale and Proportion
Scale: size relationship between two separate
objects (often our own human size). Hand-held,
human scale, monumental.
Proportion: comparative, or relative, relationship
between the parts to a whole within one image.
At the smaller scale, we are invited to enter and explore the artwork mentally rather than physically. Expanded to
monumental scale, the artwork would invite physical entry. Simply by changing the scale, the artist could create very
different responses to the same composition. Both of these concepts strongly affect compositional balance and
emotional impact. Exaggeration can draw the viewer’s attention. Understatement creates a sense of mystery, while
overstatement creates emphasis. In industrial design, changes in proportion can enhance or diminish function, as seen in
the proportions in figure 10.24. In sculpture, variations in proportion can increase aesthetic impact. Brancusi
progressively abstracts and elongates the form, until the simple sculpture appears to fly
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8. Emphasis
Emphasis: Special attention given to some
aspect of a composition (focal point).
Isolation (anomaly)
Placement
ContrastVisual elements in a composition must work together as a team. Selected elements dominate or stand
out, while others are subordinate or supportive. A focal point is a compositional device used to create
emphasis.
•Isolation: any anomaly, or break from the norm tends to stand out. Separation and connection: a
separation or anomaly gives emphasis; a clear pattern creates a connection.
•Placement: The compositional center is especially potent. Centricity draws us in and eccentricity forces
us outward. Location: the relative distance from the center; can be directed through eye movement or
pointers.
•Contrast: Created when two or more forces (elements of design) operate in opposition. Examples include
static/dynamic, small/large, solid/texture, and curvilinear/rectilinear. A balance of 80/20 is especially
effective. In your compositions, consider a contrast in scale, shape, or color for example. The larger force
sets the standard, while the smaller force creates the exception. Contrast can appear in many forms and in
varying degrees. In figure 10.31 the contrast between positive and negative space adds rhythm and
texture. Figure 10.33 presents a contrast between movement and constraint when worn around the
throat.
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9. Repetition and Rhythm
Repetition: The use of the some visual element or
effect a number of times in the same composition.
Rhythm: Presentation of multiple units in a deliberate
pattern, determined by the beat (pulse), accent
(stress), and tempo (pace, or rate of change).
Rhythm can be created by alternating elements of pause and emphasis or a sequential
flow pattern. It can be created through repetition of any element of design, including
positive form and negative space, as in figure 10.36. When the number of circles
multiplies, the tempo increases. The pattern in figure 10.37 accentuates the spatial
variations in the piece, and rectilinear shapes emphasize interior and exterior edges. Like
a complex musical piece, three types of rhythm have been skillfully woven together.
The multiple views offered by physical objects accentuate the importance of rhythm. In
figure 10.38, our eyes follow the turning heads, clasped hands, and swirling arms as they
move in, out, and around in space. Repetition is often used to increase compositional
unity. It can also be used to quantify an elusive idea. The thirty statues in figure 10.40 are
often interpreted as victims of war, offering a silent testimony to a tragic past.
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10. Repetition and Rhythm
Repetition: The use of the some visual element or
effect a number of times in the same composition.
Rhythm: Presentation of multiple units in a deliberate
pattern, determined by the beat (pulse), accent
(stress), and tempo (pace, or rate of change).
Rhythm can be created by alternating elements of pause and emphasis or a sequential
flow pattern. It can be created through repetition of any element of design, including
positive form and negative space, as in figure 10.36. When the number of circles
multiplies, the tempo increases. The pattern in figure 10.37 accentuates the spatial
variations in the piece, and rectilinear shapes emphasize interior and exterior edges. Like
a complex musical piece, three types of rhythm have been skillfully woven together.
The multiple views offered by physical objects accentuate the importance of rhythm. In
figure 10.38, our eyes follow the turning heads, clasped hands, and swirling arms as they
move in, out, and around in space. Repetition is often used to increase compositional
unity. It can also be used to quantify an elusive idea. The thirty statues in figure 10.40 are
often interpreted as victims of war, offering a silent testimony to a tragic past.
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