FERROUS MATERIALS AND NON MATERIALS

1. FERROUS METALFERROUS METAL
ANDAND
NON-FERROUS METALNON-FERROUS METAL
Prepared By: Temoor Abbas LarikPrepared By: Temoor Abbas Larik
LecturerLecturer
Mechanical EngineeringMechanical Engineering
QUCEST LarkanaQUCEST Larkana

3. A metal containing iron as a primary material
Ferrous Metal
- Iron
- Cast Iron
- Steel
- Stainless Steel
- Wrought Iron

4. Ferrous Metal
 all forms of iron and steel
 chemical composition & internal structure
is highly controlled during manufacturing
 Good strength and hard
 Fabricated in shops to desired size & shape
 good quality control during manufacturing

5. A metal containing little or no iron
Non-ferrous Metal
- Aluminum
- Bronze
- Brass
- Copper
- Lead

6. Iron is a metal extracted mainly from the iron
ore hematite. It oxidizes readily in air and water
to form Fe2O3 and is rarely found as a free
element.
Iron is believed to be the sixth most abundant
element in the universe
IRON

7. Iron (Fe) – atomic number 26
most widely used of all metals as base metal
in steel and cast iron
found in the form of ores as oxides,
carbonates & sulfides
Basic constituent of steel
produced in blast furnaces

8. SMELTING TECHNIQUE

9. Pig iron
The intermediate product of smelting iron ore
with a high-carbon fuel such as coke, usually
with limestonee (CaCo3) as a flux
Crude form of iron which is used for the production
of cast, wrought iron and steel.
Cast into pigs in preparation for conversion into
cast iron, wrought iron or steel
Pig iron has a very high carbon content, typically
3.5 - 4.5%, which makes it very brittle and not
useful directly as a material except for limited
applications

10. The Three Principal raw material used for the production of Pig Iron are:
1. Iron Ore: Iron ores are rocks and minerals from which metallic iron can
be economically extracted. The ores are usually rich in iron oxides and
vary in color from dark grey, bright yellow, deep purple, to rusty red.
The iron itself is usually found in the form of:
(a) Oxides of Iron ore:
Magnetite (Fe3O4) : Contain 62 to 72% of iron. This is black colored and
available in crystals. It is also called load stone or magnetic iron. (S.G 5.2)
Hematite (Fe2O3) : Contain 60 to 70% of iron This is red colored also called
red hematite. This is widely used for the production of iron ore. (S.G 5)
Limonite (Fe2O3.n(H2O)) : Contain 40 to 60% iron when pure.
(b) Carbonates of Iron ore:
Siderite (FeCO3):Contain 35 to 48% iron it is yellowish white or grey
colored ore and available in crystalline structure (Spathic iron) (S.G 3.7)
(c) Sulfides of iron ore:
Pyrite (FeS2): Contain 30 to 40% iron. The iron obtained from this ore is
very low quality due to high sulpher content (S.G 4.8)

11. 2. Fuel:
The most commonly used fuel used in Manufacturing of Pig
iron is hard coke
It provide required heat for melting of iron ore
It combine with the oxygen of the ore in order to minimize the
same
It should be free from P & S and have high C.F.V &low ash
3.Flux:
The most commonly used Flux is Limestone but some time
dolomite (carbonate mineral) is used
The flux is used for removing impurities such as ash, sulfher and
residue of the burnt fuel.
The flux melts and drives away the impurities in the form of

12. Manufacturing Of Pig Iron
1. Concentration:
First of all iron ore is broken into pieces and then other
adhering impurities like clay sand are removed with water
and thus ore is concentrated
2. Calcinations (Roasting):
The concentrated ore is then heated in shallow kilns in
the presence of excess air. During this process most of
the moisture, CO2, S & arsenic are expelled out & ferrous
oxide is converted into ferric oxide which is desired form
of iron oxide
3. Smelting:
The calcinated ore is now submitted to a process of
smelting means reducing ore with carbon in the presence
of a flux. It is carried out in a Blast furnace.

13. Stock House
Hot Blast Stoves
Gas Cleaning
Scrubber
Iron making in the Blast Furnace Plant
Bell Less Top
Blower
Combustion Air Slag, Hot Metal
Gasholder
Enrichment Gas
Combustion Gas
Sinter Coke

14. Description:
• It is chimney like structure made of heavy steel plates lined inside
with fire bricks of thickness 1.2 to 1.5meters
• It is about 30 meters high with a maximum inside diameter of 9m
• The above portion (from widest section) of Blast furnace is called
Stack
• The top portion of blast furnace is called Throat through which
charge is fed into the furnace
The below portion of furnace from its widest section is called Bosh
or the Burning zone or Zone of Fusion
The bosh is provided with holes for a number of water jacketed iron
blowing pipes known as tuyeres
The heated air under pressure is forced through the tuyers for burning
the fuel in the furnace
The bustle pipe is in turn connected to heaters or stoves. This bustle
pipe is connected with tuyeres which are usually 12 to 15 in number

15. Hearth
Refractories
Tuyeres
Bustle Main
Refractory
Lining
Throat
Top Bins
Top Gas Mains
Temp. (400-700C)
Stack
Temo. (800-1000C)
Blast Furnace
Temp.(1200-1300C)
Temp.1500C

16. Hot Blast Stove
Combustion
Chamber
Chequers

17. SINTER PLANT
BLAST FURNACE
Iron Production
COKE OVEN PLANT

18. Coking Coal and iron ore are the basic raw materials for
the production of pig iron
Most of the iron ores and additives are operate as fines
and need some pretreatment before being processed in
the blast furnace.
This preprocess is called sintering, where, by means of
heat (approx. 1300°C) the fines are somehow baked to
particles of between 20 and 50 mm mean diameter. These
particles, called sinter.
In the blast furnace the reduction of the iron ores (Fe2O3)
to metallic iron and the melting of the iron and by products
take place.

19. Both, reduction and melting need high temperature,
which is generated by combustion of coke using hot
blast, blown in via tuyeres located around the furnace.
The reduction gas leaving the furnace is called top gas
and after a cleaning process used to preheat the air in
the hot blast stoves.
Hot metal and slag are further tapped from the hearth of
the blast furnace, by drilling a so called tap hole, which
will be closed after approximately one to one and a half
hours again.
The separation of hot metal and slag takes place in a so
called pool runner outside the furnace, using the
density difference.

20. Metallurgy of Iron
Reduction of iron oxide in the Blast furnace.
Materials:
• Concentrated iron ore
• Coke
• Blast of hot air
• Flux

21. Reactions taking place in the Blast furnace
• Combustion of Coke (Zone of fusion)(1500C)
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + heat
CO2(g) + C(s)→ 2CO(g) + heat (zone of absorption) (800-100C)
• Reduction of Fe2O3(400-700C)
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 4Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

22. Reactions taking place in the Blast furnace
• Calcinations
CaCO3(s) + heat → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
• Slag formation
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l) (slag)
CaO(s) + Al2O3(s) → Ca(AlO2)2(l)

23. 1. A blast furnace forces
in extremely hot air
through a mixture of ore,
coke, and limestone,
called the charge.
Iron Blast furnace
2. Carts called skips dump the
charge into the top of the
furnace, where it filters down
through bell-shaped containers
called hoppers.

24. Iron Blast furnace
3. Once in the furnace, the
charge is subjected to air blasts
that may be as hot as 870° C
(1600° F).
4. The waste metal, called slag,
floats on top of the molten pig iron.
Both of these substances are
drained, or tapped, periodically for
further processing.

25. Products of the Blast furnace
 Pig iron - 93-95% Fe, 3-5% C, 1% Si,
0.1- 0.3% P, <1% S
 Waste gases – CO2 and CO
 Slag – CaSiO3 and Ca(AlO2)2

26. Blast furnaceBlast furnace

27. Blast furnaceBlast furnace
• A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace
used for smelting industrial metals, generally iron.
• In a blast furnace, fuel, ore and limestone as flux are
continuously supplied through the top of the
furnace, while air (sometimes with oxygen
enrichment) is blown into the bottom of the
chamber, so that chemical reactions take place
throughout the furnace as the material moves
downward.

28. Blast furnaceBlast furnace
• The end products are usually molten metal and slag
phases tapped from the bottom, and flue gases
exiting from the top of the furnace.

29. Blast furnaceBlast furnace

30. FERROUS METALS
CAST IRON
A hard, brittle, nonmalleable iron-based alloy
containing 2-4.5% carbon and 0.5%-3% silicon.
Also Contain Si, P, Mn and Sulfur.

31.  Composed primarily of iron, carbon and silicon
 Shaped by being cast in a mold
It has the greatest amount of carbon
 Basically, the amount and form of carbon
could affect the strength, hardness, brittleness
and stiffness of cast iron.
 Adding carbon to iron increases its hardness &
strength but lowers the ductility.
 Cast iron has high compressive strength (400-
1000MPa) but its tensile strength is low (100-200MPa).
Carbon in cast iron is present in to two forms such as
Free carbon or Graphite and Combined Carbon or
Cementite.
It cannot be used in those parts which are subjected to

32. Cast Iron
 Manufactured by reheating pig iron with coke and
lime stone (in a cupola) and blending it with other
material of known composition.
 Alternate layers of pig iron (with or without scrap
steel) and coke are charged into furnace.
 Limestone is added to flux the ash from the coke.
 Heat necessary for the smelting is supplied by the
combustion of coke and air supplied by the blast.
 Cupola function to purify iron and produce a more
uniform product.
 When sufficient metal is accumulated at the
bottom of the furnace, it is tapped.

33. Cast Iron Teapot
Cast Iron Pots

34. Cupola Furnace
A vertical cylindrical furnace (1m wide & 4m
high) equipped with a tapping spout neat its
base. Cupolas are used only for melting cast
irons.
It consists of a large shell of steel plate lined with
refractory. The charge, consisting are iron, Coke, flux
and possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up the height
of the cupola.
The iron is usually a mixture of pig iron and scrap
(including risers, runners, and spruces left over from
previous castings). Coke is the fuel used to heat the
furnace. Forced air is introduced through openings
(tuyers) near the bottom of the shell for combustion of

35. The flux is a basic compound such as limestone that
reacts with coke, ash & other impurities to form slag.
The slag serves to cover the melt, protecting it from
reaction with the environment inside the cupola & reducing
heat loss.
As the mixture is heated and melting of the iron occurs,
the furnace is periodically tapped to provide liquid metal
for the pour.
Cupola zones
Combustion or Oxidizing zone:
It is the zone where combustion takes place. It extends
from the top of the tuyeres to a surface boundary below
which all the Oxygen of air is consumed by combustion.
C (coke) + 02 (from air) -> C02 + Heat
The temperature in this zone is about 1800°C.

36. Reducing zone
It extends from the top of the combustion zone to the
top of the initial coke bed. The CO2 produced in the
combustion zone moves up and is reduced to CO. The
temperature also drops to 1650°C.
C02 + C2 -» CO – Heat
Melting zone
It includes the first layer of pig iron above the initial
coke bed. In this zone, the pig iron is melted. The
following reaction takes place.
3 Fe + 2 CO -» Fe3C + C02
Preheating zone
It includes all the layers of cupola charges placed above the
melting zone to the top of the last charge. The layers of
charges are heated by the out-going gases. The
temperature in the zone may be up to 1050°C.

39. FERROUS METALS
CAST IRON
APPLICATION:
- Piping & Fittings
- decorative Ironwork
- Hardware
- Floor & Wall Brackets for Railings
- Circular Stairs
- Manhole Cover

40.  Advantages of cast iron are as follows:
a) Cheap
b) Low melting point
c) Fluid – easy to cast, especially advantageous
into large complex shapes
d) Excellent machine ability
e) Excellent bearing properties
f) Excellent damping properties
(ability to absorb noise and vibration)
g) Can be heat threatened
h) Can be alloyed

41. Element Percentage Effect
Silicon Up to 4% Provides Formation of free graphite
That makes it Soft & easily
Machinable
Produce Sound castings free from
below hole
Sulfur < 0.1% Makes it hard & brittle
Too Much Sulfur give unsound
Castings
Manganese < 0.75 % Makes it white and hard
Control the harmful influences of S
Phosphorus 1% Aids fusibility and Fluidity
Induces brittleness
Effect of Impurities On Cast Iron

42. S.N Type Composition Mechanical Properties
01 Gray cast
iron
C = (3-3.5%) Si = (1-
2.75%)
Mn = (0.40-1%) P =
(0.15-1%)
S = (0.02-0.15%)
02 White cast
iron
C = (1.75-2.3%) Si =
(0.85-1.2%)
Mn = (0.1-0.4%) P =
(0.05-0.2%)
S = (0.12-0.3%)
Types of cast Iron

43. • GRAY CAST IRON
“Gray Cast Iron” also known as ordinary
cast iron due to the color of fracture.
 It contains free carbon (graphite flakes) that
makes the metal weak and soft.
 Contains high carbon content and large
numbers of graphite flakes
 The flakes gives a gray appearance to a
fractured surface
 most widely used cast iron
 Have poor ductility and easily machined
High compressive & low tensile strength

44. White Cast Iron
“White Cast Iron” is called in such name due to
the fracture surface that has a silvery white
metallic color.
Carbon is combined chemically with iron in the
form of cementite (Quick cooling ) that makes
this metal strong, hard and brittle.
 harder and more resistant to wear from
abrasion compared to gray iron.
 Excellent wear resistance
 High compressive stress

45. White Cast Iron Daybed
Cast Iron Bench

46. Malleable Cast Iron
 Malleable iron formed from a white iron casting by
heat treatment.
The white iron is transformed in to malleable iron by
heat treatment for a day or two at about 950 °C
and then cooled over a day or two. As a result, the
carbon in iron carbide transforms into graphite and
ferrite plus carbon (austenite).
 The slow process or annealing process allows
the surface tension to form the graphite into
spheroidal particles rather than flakes or separates
the combined carbon into nodules of free graphite.
In general, the properties of malleable cast iron are
more like those of mild steel.

47. Alloy Cast Iron
The alloy cast iron is produced by adding alloying
elements like nickel chromium molybdenum
copper and vanadium in sufficient quantities
These alloying elements give more strength high
wear resistant corrosion or hear resistant
These are used for gears automobile parts etc

48. FERROUS METALS
WROUGHT IRON
Commercially pure iron, containing only
approximately 0.02% carbon
A tough, malleable, readily soft iron that is easily
forged & welded. Fatigue & corrosion resistant
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very
low carbon content in contrast to cast iron.
It is mainly composed of iron, Carbon & little
amount of (1-2%) of added slag (Si,S,P &Alo)

49.  It’s a low carbon iron (less than 0.1% carbon
by weight) containing a small amount of slag,
usually less than 3%.
 It contains small amount of manganese (less
than 0.1%) and silicon (0.2%).
 It’s ductility is lower than steel.
 It’s tensile strength is lower.
 It can be molded easily and has good
resistance to corrosion.
 It is used to make pipes, corrugated sheets,
grills, bars, chains and other products.

50.  It is purest form of iron which contain 99.5 to
99.9% of iron.
C= 0.02% Si = 0.018% P = 0.02% Slag= 0.07%
It can be cold worked, forged and welded like
steel.
Wrought iron is used extensively where
corrosion resistance is needed.
Its ultimate tensile strength 250-500MPa and
ultimate compressive strength is 300MPa
Melting Point is about 1530C
It can not with stand sudden and excesses
shock

51. Wrought Iron Gate & Wrought Iron Fence

52. FERROUS METALS
WROUGHT IRON
Literally means “worked iron”
APPLICATION:
- Piping & Fittings for Plumbing,
Bolts nuts railway coupling
- Ornamental Ironwork
-Garden Furniture
-Rivets nuts and bolts

53. Puddling Furnace
• The wrought iron is
produced from Pig iron by
re melting it in the
puddling furnace
• This is coal fired
Reverberatory furnace
• The term Reverberatory is
used in this charge is not
in actual contact with the
fire but receives its heat
by reflection from the
roof of shaped furnace

54. Puddling Furnace
• Initially Charge (Pig iron & scrap) is fed into the furnace hearth
which is lined with iron oxide.
• When charge melts most of elements like (C,Si &Mn) are
removed by oxidation due to contact with lining of iron oxide
• As the melting proceeds the puddler continuously stirs (Mix)
the molten metal with the help of long rake through the
puddling door
• When the melting is complete the impurities form a slag with
some of oxides present & this slag floats on the top of hearth
• The slag is not drawn off but more scale is thrown into the
furnace & stirred with molten metal from time to time.
• The addition of oxide to slag already rich in oxides cause the
carbon of pig iron to react with iron oxide & formation of CO
takes place

55. • This causes the molten metal to boil up. At this
stage some of the slag rises up and flows out from
the slag hole
• As the carbon becomes oxidized it is washed away
the bubbling subsides and iron becomes stiffer and
in pasty form
• The temperature of the furnace is now raised up to
the highest possible point during this point the
charge is continuously puddled until it becomes a
mass of pasty iron inter mixed with slag
• It is removed from the furnace in the form of balls
(Blooms)
• These balls in white hot condition are then
hammered to squeezed out most of slag in the iron

59. FERROUS METALS
GALVANIZED IRON (G.I.)
Iron coated with zinc to prevent rust. The
process is achieved thru hot-dip galvanizing

60. FERROUS METALS
GALVANIZED IRON
APPLICATION:
- Metal Decking
- Roofing & Accessories
- Ceiling Framing
- Wall Framing
- Piping

61. FERROUS METALS
STEEL
Alloys of iron and carbon
Carbon content is no more than 2%
Alloy elements is composed of phosphorous,
sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, manganese, silicon,
aluminum, copper, nickel, etc.
Can be wrought, rolled, cast, and welded, but
not extruded

62.  It’s included in the term ferrous metal
 It’s a combination of iron & carbon( 0.01 –
1.7%)
 Contains varying amounts of manganese,
phosphorus, sulfur, silicon & 20 other alloys
 Alloys added to produce steel of different
characteristics.
 To produce useful steel, pig iron need to be
oxidized in another furnace at about 1650°C.
 Pig iron is not useful because it’s weak and
brittle although it’s very hard.

63.  Most steel is made by the basic oxygen
process, Bessemer process, open-hearth
process or cementation process.
 Carbon is the key element in controlling the
properties of ordinary steel called carbon
steel.

64. ADVANTAGES
 High Strength
- importance for long span bridges, tall building &
structures with poor foundation conditions
 Uniformity
- Properties of steel don’t change appreciably with
time
- Same thing happen to reinforced concrete structure
 Elasticity
- Steel behaves closer to design assumptions than
most
material

65.  Permanence
- Steel frames that are properly maintained
will last indefinitely
 Ductility
- Can withstand extensive deformation
without failure under high tensile stresses
also said to be ductile

66. DISADVANTAGES
 Maintenance cost
- free exposed to air & water
- must be periodically painted
 Fire proofing cost
- steel frame must be fire proofed since it is an
excellent heat conductor
 Susceptibility to buckling
- the longer & slender the compression members, the
greater the danger of buckling
 Fatigue
- strength may be reduced if it is subjected to a large
number of stress reversal / even to a large number of
variations of stress of the same character

67. PROPERTIES OF STEEL
 Steel contain less than 2% carbon by weight.
 Structural steel has less than 0.25% carbon
 Carbon exerts the most significant effects on
microstructure and properties of steel.
 Increase in carbon content increases the
hardness, strength & abrasion resistance but
decreases the
ductility, toughness and impact resistance
 Ductility is measured by the percentage of
elongation during the tension test, decreases
drastically with increase in carbon content.

68. 3 factors that could affect properties of steel are:
a) Chemical composition
- steel chemical composition is determined by
i) the composition of the materials used
ii) the length of time in the furnace
iii) the medium surrounding the steel (whether
air, oxygen or vacuum). It depends on the
process used.
iv) whether open flame or heat
b) Heat treatment
c) Mechanical Work

69.  Carbon and alloying elements affect both
physical properties (such as weld ability &
corrosion) and mechanical properties (such
as yield strength, tensile strength & ductile).

70. FERROUS METALS
Types of Steel:
Carbon Steel
Alloy Steel
- Stainless Steel
- HSLA Steel (high-strength low-alloy)

71. Unalloyed steel in which the residual element
as carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur and
silicon are controlled.
Any increase in carbon content increase the
strength and hardness but reduces its ductility
and weld ability.
Carbon Steel
FERROUS METALS

72. FERROUS METALS
Carbon Steel
APPLICATION:
- Structural Steel
- Concrete Reinforcement
-Roofing & Accessories
- Windows & Doors
- Hardware

73. Classification of steel
All of these steels are alloys of Fe and C
• Plain carbon steels or unalloyed steel (less
than 2% carbon and negligible amounts of
other residual elements)
• Dead mild steel ----- up to 0.15% carbon
• Low Carbon or mild steel ------ 0.15% to
0.45% carbon)
• Med Carbon steel -------0.45% to 0.8%)
• High Carbon (0.8% to 1.5%)

74. Alloy Steel
• Again, elements added to steel can dissolve in iron
(solid solution strengthening):
• Increase strength, harden ability, toughness, creep, high
temp resistance.
• Alloy steels grouped into low, med and high-alloy
steels.
• High-alloy steels would be the stainless steel groups.
• Most alloy steels you’ll use fall under the category of low
alloy.

75. Steel Making Process
• Bessemer Process
• Open hearth process
• Electric Process
• Basic oxygen process
• Crucible Process
• Duplex Process
Steel Making ProcessSteel Making Process

76. Basic Oxygen process (Steel making)
Basic oxygen steelmaking also known as Linz-
Donawitz-Verfahren steelmaking a method of
primary steelmaking in which carbon-rich pig
molten iron is made into steel.
Blowing oxygen through molten pig iron lowers the
carbon content of the alloy and changes it into low-
carbon steel
This process is known as basic due to the type
of refractoriness calcium oxide and magnesium
oxide that line the vessel to withstand the high
temperature of molten metal.

77. Manufacturing Process
1. First of all Molten pig iron (sometimes referred to as "hot
metal") from a blast furnace is poured into a large
refractory-lined container called a ladle.
2. The metal in the ladle is sent directly for basic oxygen
steelmaking or to a pretreatment stage.
Pretreatment of the blast furnace metal is used to reduce
the refining load of sulfur, silicon, and phosphorus.
3. Filling the furnace with the elements is called charging.
The BOS process is autogenous (arising from within or from a
thing itself) the required thermal energy is produced during
the process.
Maintaining the proper charge balance, the ratio of hot
metal to scrap, is therefore very important.

78. 4. The vessel is then set upright and a water-cooled lance
(a metal pipe supplying a jet of oxygen to a furnace) is
lowered down into it.
The lance blows 99% pure oxygen onto the steel and iron,
igniting the carbon dissolved in the steel and burning it to
form CO & CO2 causing the temperature to rise to about
1700°C.
This melts the scrap, lowers the carbon content of the
molten iron & remove unwanted chemical elements.
It is this use of oxygen instead of air that improves upon
the Bessemer process, for the nitrogen (and other gases)
in air do not react with the charge as oxygen does. High
purity oxygen is blown into the furnace or BOS vessel
through a vertically oriented water-cooled lance with
supersonic velocities

79. 5. Fluxes are fed into the vessel to form slag, which
absorbs impurities of the steelmaking process.
During blowing the metal in the vessel forms
an emulsion (An emulsion is a mixture of two or
more liquids that are normally non mixable) with the
slag, facilitating the refining process.
A typical chemistry of the blown metal is 0.3–0.6% C,
0.05–0.1% Mn, 0.01–0.03% Si, 0.01–0.03% S and P.
6. The BOS vessel is tilted again and the steel is
poured into a giant ladle. This process is
called tapping the steel. The steel is further refined in
the ladle furnace, by adding alloying materials to give
the steel special properties required by the
customer.

80. Basic oxygen Furnace
A typical top-blown basic oxygen furnace is a vertical
cylindrical vessel with a closed bottom and an open upper
cone through which a water-cooled oxygen lance can be
raised and lowered. The vessel is lined with a refractory
such as magnesite and is mounted on trunnions so that it
can be tilted for charging and also for tapping liquid steel.
A charge typically consisting of 70–75 percent molten
blast-furnace iron (containing approximately 4 percent
carbon), 25–30 percent scrap metal, and lime and other
fluxes is fed into the furnace. The lance is lowered into the
vessel, and oxygen is injected into the bath at supersonic
velocities with flow rates that can exceed 800 cubic m
(28,000 cubic feet) per minute.

81. The duration of the oxygen “blow,” normally close to 20
minutes, is varied to reduce the carbon in the steel to the
required level. The steel is then tapped into a ladle at
temperatures close to 1,600° C (2,900° F), and appropriate
ferroalloys and deoxidizers are added to meet the required
steel composition.
Furnace Operation
The charged furnace is returned to an upright position and
a water cooled oxygen lance is lowered from the top;
oxygen is blown into the bath at supersonic speeds
causing rapid mixing and heat from the oxidation of iron
and impurities. Fluxes (burnt lime, burnt dolomite, and
fluorspar) are added to help carry off the impurities in the
floating slag layer. This step requires only about 15
minutes of an overall 45 minute tap to tap cycle time

82. Basic oxygen Furnace

85. Bessemer Process
The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial
process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig
iron.
The key principle is removal of impurities from
the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the molten
iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron
mass and keeps it molten.
The Bessemer converter is a cylindrical steel pot
approximately 20 feet high, originally lined with a siliceous
refractory.
Air is blown in through openings (tuyeres) near the bottom,
creating oxides of silicon and manganese, which become
part of the slag, and of carbon, which are carried out in the
stream of air.

86. The converter is mounted on trunions attached
to the side in such a manner that it may be
tilted or in some cases turned entirely upside
down
One of the trunions is hollow & serves to
connect the main blast to a pipe leading down
the side of the converter to the wind box which
is attached to the bottom of the converter
About 20 fir brick cylinders called tuyers lead
from the wind box through bottom lining to the
interior of the converter

87. Manufacturing process:
1.In the first stage charge is feed in to the converter by pouring
molten pig iron until the level is just below the blast holes, when a
blast of air is forced to bustle through the molten iron.
2. In the second stage (known as blowing position) the converter is
tilted to the vertical position & the air blast turned on. Under the
heat of the molten pig iron , the in rushing iron burns out most of
impurities
First of all silicon and manganese burns out which is indicated by
brown smoke rising up through the mouth of the converter after
carbon is oxidizes which is indicated by white flame.
3. In the third stage ( known as pouring position) the white flame of
burning carbon drops & the content of converter are poured in a
ladder
Now a small quantity of some alloy is added for improving the
quality of steel and the final product is good quality of steel

88. Bessemer Converter

89. Charging position
Pouring position

91. Cementation Process:
Wrought iron bars are kept in a furnace in between
powdered charcoal layers and are subjected to a very high
temperature – about 10000
C for about a week to fortnight
depending upon the required quality of the steel.
The conditions slowly diffuse carbon into iron and cause
the carbon to become dissolved in the iron, raising the
carbon percentage. Steel obtained from this process is
called “blister steel" due to the blister-like marks formed
on the surface due to the evolved gases during the
manufacturing process. The carbon amount here is
usually around 0.75% to 1.5%.

93. Alloy Steel
• Again, elements other than carbon added to steel can
dissolve in iron (solid solution strengthening):
• Increase strength, harden ability, toughness, creep, high
temp resistance and other desirable properties.
• Alloy steels grouped into low (2.5%), med (2.5-10%)and high-
alloy steels (>10%).
• High-alloy steels would be the stainless steel groups.
• Most alloy steels you’ll use fall under the category of low
alloy.
• The elements may be used separately or in combination to
produce certain desired properties in steel

94. Alloy Steels
So, there was a need to create better types of steels, which are alloy
steels, additions of alloys (low amounts of Mn, Ni, Cr, Ti, Si, etc) to
improve its physical properties and alters it chemical composition.
•Alloying increases the cost of the steel, but the enhanced properties
are essential in many applications.
•Alloying improves corrosion resistance (particularly with the
addition of Chromium), producing the stainless steels.
•Alloying improves the hardenability, which is needed for tool steels
•Hardenability means the ability of the steel to form martensite.
•Alloying increases the solid solution strengthening of the ferrite
phase

95. ALLOY ELEMENTS & IT’S PURPOSE/S:
1. Aluminum for surface hardening
2. Chromium for increasing corrosion resistance,
strength, hardness
3. Copper for resistance to atmospheric corrosion
4. Manganese in small amounts for hardening; in larger
amounts for wear resistance. It is also used to reduce
formation of FeS by combining with sulpher.
5. Molybdenum, combined with other alloying metals
such as chromium & nickel, to increase corrosion
resistance and to raise tensile strength without
reducing ductility.
FERROUS METALS

96. ALLOY ELEMENTS & IT’S PURPOSE/S:
6. Nickel to increase tensile strength without reducing
ductility; in high concentrations, to improve corrosion
resistance also increase elastic limit
7. Silicon to strengthen low alloy steels and improve
oxidation resistance; in larger amounts to provide hard,
brittle castings resistant to corrosive chemicals
8. Titanium to prevent inter granular corrosion of
stainless steels
9. Tungsten, vanadium, and cobalt for hardness and
abrasion resistance

97. Alloy Steel
N Alloying
Element
Chemical
Composition by
%
Uses Properties
1 Nickel Ni(2-5) C(0.1-
0.5)
Boiler plates
automobile parts
Improve tensile strength,
elastic limit, hardness
toughness & reduce rust
formation
2 Chromium
(Ni-Cr Steel)
1.Cr(0.5-2)
C(0.1-1.5)
2.Ni(3.25)
Cr(1.5) C(0.25)
1.Balls rollers &
races for bearing
2.Motor car crank
shaft gears axles
Increase H.T.S.C.R
High tensile strength great
resistant to shock
3 Vanadium
(Cr-Vn steel)
1.Vn(0.25)
2.Cr(0.5-1.5) Vn
(0.15-
0.3)C(0.13-1.1)
1.for tool & special
steel
2.For spring steel
crank shaft
locomotive
1.Increase Y.S.T.S
2.Makes the steel tough
and strong
4 Tungsten
(Tool steel or
H.S.S)
1.Tn(5-6)
2.Tn(18)Cr(4)
Vn(1) C(0.7)
1. cutting , and for
magnets in electrical
instruments
2.Used for HSS
cutting tools
1.Imparts cutting
hardness, abrasion
resistance give good
magnetic properties
5 Manganese
(Alloy sell)
1.Mn(1.5)C(0.4-
0.55)
2. Mn(10-
14)C(1-1.3)
1.Gears axles shafts
2. Railway
equipments mining
rock crushing
1. It makes the hard
tough & Wear
resisting
2. Extensively hard T
and high resistant
to abrasion
H= Hardness
T= Toughness
C.R= Corrosion resistance
T.S= Tensile strength
Y.S= Yield strength

98. An alloy steel containing a minimum of 12%
chromium & additional nickel, manganese, and
molybdenum alloy elements
Resistance to heat, oxidation & corrosion
Does not stain, corrode or rust as ordinary steel
Stainless Steel (Alloy steel or Special steel)
FERROUS METALS

99. Stainless steels
• Stainless steels are another class of ferrous alloys,
which have been made for and are used because of their
excellent corrosion resistance in many environments
• A true stainless steel has at least 12% Cr in the steel.
• This steel is exposed to oxygen, which forms a thin,
stable Cr2O3 coating on the surface, which is very corrosion
resistant.
• The Cr2O3 in the steel is very stable against attack by a
number of chemicals and electrolytic corrosion actions. I

100. “Stainless Steels”
Predominant alloying element is at least 11% Chromium
Corrosion resistance may be enhanced by Ni and Mo
additions
4 classes: ferritic, austenitic, martensitic and precipitation-
hardening
Used at high temperatures (up to ~ 1000 C) and severe
environments
Gas turbines, steam boilers, aircraft, missiles
In general, there are four types of stainless steels based
on their crystal structure and strengthening mechanisms.
They are:
•Ferritic stainless steels
•Martensitic stainless steels
•Austenitic stainless steels
•Precipitation-hardened stainless steels

101. Stainless Steel
• The Austenitic Stainless Steel: austenite structure is
retained in the room temperature by Ni (acts as
substitution atom): It has high corrosion resistance.
• Ferritic Stainless Steel: Less nickel content than austenitic
stainless steel: Used for applications not requiring the high
corrosion resistance of the austenitic stainless steels. Less
expensive
• Martensitic Stainless steel: Excellent for applications for
springs, and knives and forks.
• Precipitation hardening stainless steel: increased
resistance to dislocation motion, thereby increased
strength, or hardness. Used for corrosion resistance
structural members.

102. FERROUS METALS
Stainless Steel
APPLICATION:
- Exterior Wall Finishes
- Interior Wall Finishes
- Railings
-Doors & Windows
- Hardware

103. A group of low-carbon steels containing less
than 2% alloys in a chemical composition
specifically developed for increase strength,
ductility, & resistance to corrosion
Much stronger & tougher than ordinary carbon
steel
HSLA (High-Strength Low-Alloy) Steel
FERROUS METALS

104. High strength low alloy steels
(HSLA steels)
• Contain alloying elements such as Cu, V, Ni, Mo in
combined concentrations of <10 wt%
• Stronger than plain low-C steels
• Ductile, formable and machine able

105. FERROUS METALS
HSLA Steel
APPLICATION:
- Reinforcement for Pre-stressed Concrete
- High-strength Bolts
- Special Structural Steel
- Cables for Elevators

106. A high-strength, low-alloy steel that forms an
oxide coating when exposed to rain or moisture
in the atmosphere
Best-known under the trademark COR-TEN steel
Weathering Steel
FERROUS METALS

107. Angel of the North
(20x54m),
Gateshead,
United Kingdom
FERROUS METALS
Weathering Steel

108. refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that
are particularly suited to be made into tools
Distinctively hard, resistance to abrasion and
deformation, and has ability to hold a cutting
edge
Tools Steel
FERROUS METALS

109. Tool Steels
• Tool Materials generally have at least 0.60% C
• High hardness to resist deformation
• Resistance to wear to achieve economical tool life
• Dimensional stability
• Applications
• Cutting Tools
• Dies for Casting or Forming
• Gages for Dimensional Tolerance Measurement

110. Heat Resistant Steel
• The steels which can resist which can resist creep
and oxidation at high temperature and retain sufficient
strength are called HRS
Heat Resistant Steel refers to the steel which is
capable of resist scaling at temperature above 5000
C
This steel is adherent and its intense oxide layers
provides the heat resistance of the material. It is
capable of upholding processes when exposed, either
continuously or erratically, to operating temperatures
which result in metal temperatures in excess of 650
C. The heat resistance of the steel depends on its�
chromium, silicon and aluminum content.

111. 1. Low alloy steels: It contain 0.5% M0. Used in superheated
tubes and pipes in steam plants where operating
temperature are in the range of 400-5000
C
2. Valve steels: The chromium-silicon steels such as silichrome
(0.4%C, 8% Cr 3.5% Si) and Volmax (0.5%C, 8% Cr 3.5% Si,
0.5% Mo) are used for automobile valves. They possess
good resistant to scaling at dull red heat, although their
strength at elevated temperature is low.
3. Plain chromium steel:
(a) Martensitic chromium steel with 12-13% cr and
(b) Ferritic chromium steel with 18-30% cr
(c) These steels are good for oxidation resistance at high
temperature as compared to their strength which is not high
at such conditions . Maximum operating temperature of
martensite steel is about 7500
C where as ferritic steel it is
about 1000-11500
C

112. Soft, non magnetic, ductile and malleable silvery
white metal with thermal and electrical conductivity.
• Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth's
crust, and the third most abundant element therein,
after oxygen and silicon.
NON-FERROUS METALS
Aluminum
Used as structural
framing like the high
strength aluminum alloys
and secondary building
elements such as
windows, doors, roofing
and hard wares.

113. The metallic element aluminum is the third most
plentiful element in the earth's crust, comprising 8%
of the planet's soil and rocks (oxygen and silicon
make up 47% and 28%, respectively).
In nature, aluminum is found only in chemical
compounds with other elements such as sulfur,
silicon, and oxygen (Combined State). Pure, metallic
aluminum can be economically produced only from
aluminum oxide ore.
Metallic aluminum has many properties that
make it useful in a wide range of applications.
It is lightweight, strong, nonmagnetic, and
nontoxic.
It conducts heat and electricity and reflects
heat and light. It is strong but easily workable

114. ORES OF ALIMINIMUM
1.Silicates Ore
Kaolin
Potash Felspar
Potash Mica
2. Cryolite
Sulphates Ore
Alunite
3. Oxides Ore
Bauxite
Diaspore
Corundum

115. Ore Mineral of Al

116. • Crushed bauxite is mixed with caustic soda, and then heated
under pressure. This is allowed to settle and then filtered (to
remove impurities, and crystals of alumina are obtained from
the filtered liquor.
• These are calcined in large rotary kilns which drive off the
water and convert the hydrate into aluminum oxide.

118. Aluminum compounds occur in all types of clay, but the
ore that is most useful for producing pure aluminum is
bauxite(Al2.nH2O).
Bauxite consists of 45-60% aluminum oxide, along with
various impurities such as sand, iron, and other metals.
Although some bauxite deposits are hard rock.
The extraction of Al involves two steps:
1.Purification of aluminum ore to alumina
2.Electrolysis of pure alumina
In purification process a good quality of Al is obtained
by removing the main impurities such oxides of iron and
silica. These impurities make aluminum brittle and liable
to corrosion.

119. Refined Bauxite aluminum ore is going for the smelting
process by electrolysis.
Electrolysis is carried out in the steel tank lined with graphite.
The carbon lining serves as cathode, where as anode is
carbon rods hanging in the molten mass
Electrolysis consists of alumina dissolved in fused cryolite
and fluorspar. Cryolite lowers the melting point of alumina at
about 950 degree centigrade and fluorspar increases the
fluidity of the melt,
When electric current is passed through the mixture, the Al is
librated at Cathode in liquid state and sink down at bottom
of electrolytic cell.
Cryolite, a chemical compound composed of sodium,
aluminum, and fluorine, is used as the electrolyte (current-
conducting medium) in the smelting operation
Aluminum is separated by electrolysis at 9000
C

120. The electrolysis cell
Carbon anode
Molten
aluminium oxide
cathode
Oxygen bubbles
Steel case
Molten aluminium
Temperature 900 C

121. Ductile, malleable and bright reddish brown color with
high thermal and electrical conductivity.
Posses a “patina” weather reactive surface layer of
insoluble green salt which retards corrosion and used to
alloy bronze and brass to increase strength and
corrosion resistance.
Copper
Used as electrical wiring,
piping, flashing and
roofing material. Care must
be taken in fastening,
attaching or supported
only by selected brass
fittings.

122. OCCURRENCE OF COPPER
• Copper pyrite or chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). Yellow Copper
• Chalocite (Cu 2 S) or copper glance.
• Malachite green [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
• Azurite blue [2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2].
• Bornite (3Cu2S.Fe2S3) or peacock ore.
• Melaconite (CuO) etc.

123. The finely crushed ore (sulfide ore) is concentrated by
Froth-Floatation process.
Main principle is difference between wetting properties
of the ore and gangue particles
Sulfides ore particles are wetted by oil
Gangue particles are wetted by water
The finely crushed ore is suspended in water containing
a little amount of pine oil.
A blast of air is passed through the suspension. The
particles get wetted by the oil and float as a froth which
is skimmed d. The gangue sinks to the bottom.

124. CONCENTRATION OF ORE
• FROTH FLOATATION
PROCESS

125. ROASTING
The following reaction takes place.
2CuFeS2 + O2 ------------- Cu2S + 2FeS + SO2
4As + 3O2 ------------ 2As2O3
4Sb + 3O2 ------------ 2Sb2O3
Cuprous sulphide and ferrous sulphide are further oxidized into
their oxides.
2Cu2S + 3O2 ------------ 2Cu2O + 2SO2
2FeS + 3O2 --------------- 2FeO + 2SO2

126. SMELTING
The roasted ore is mixed with coke and silica (sand) SiO2 and
is introduced in to a blast furnace. The hot air is blasted
and FeO is converted in to ferrous silicate (FeSiO3).
FeO + SiO2 ------------- FeSiO3
FeSiO3 (slag) floats over the molten matte of copper

127. BESSEMERIZATION
Copper metal is extracted from molten matte through
bessemerization.
The matte is introduced in to Bessemer converter which
uphold by tuyers.
The air is blown through the molten matte. Blast of air
converts Cu2S partly into Cu2O which reacts with remaining
Cu2S to give molten copper.

128. BESSEMERIZATION
•2Cu2S + 3O2  2Cu2O + 2SO2
2Cu2O + Cu2S 6Cu + SO2

130. Zinc
Zinc makes up about (0.0075%) of
the Earth's crust, making it the 24th most abundant
element.
The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende),
a zinc sulfide mineral
Zinc is a bluish white and has a melting point of
419.58°C, boiling point of 907°C, specific gravity of
7.133 (25°C), with a valence of 2. Zinc is a lustrous blue-
white metal. It is hard and brittle at most temperatures,
but becomes malleable at 100-150°C, above 200 °C it
becomes brittle again
It is a fair electrical conductor. Zinc burns in air at high
red heat, evolving white clouds of zinc oxide.
It can be readily worked and rolled into thin sheets or

131. Manufacturing:
The chief zinc ore is Zinc blend also called zinc sulphide
ZnS which contain 67% of zinc. It is often associated with
galena (Lead sulphide) and iron and copper pyrites
The ore is first roasted in a reverberatory furnace to
convert zinc sulphide into zinc oxide
The roasted ore is then mixed with some form of carbon
and put into long horizontal fire clay retorts (Pressure
cookers).
The retorts are now strongly heated to about 11000
C in a
special type furnace
The heat distils off the zinc in the form of greeny-White
vapor and this is condensed to molten zinc outside the
furnace
The metal so produced is about 98% pure and is known
as spelter

132. Alloys of Aluminum
The alloy which contain aluminum as their base metal and other
elements as chemical additives are called aluminum alloys
Duralumin
Cu=3.5-4.5% Mn= 0.4-0.7% Al = 95%
Y- Alloy
Cu=3.5-4.5% Mn= 1.2-1.7% Ni = 1.8-2.3
Si=Mg=Fe= 0.6% Al =89%
Magnalium
Mg=2-10% Cu = 1.75% Al = 88%
Hindalium
Mg and Chromium

133. Alloys of Copper
The alloy which contain copper as their main constituent or
copper as a base metal combined chemically with other
alloying elements are called copper alloys
Brass
Brass is any alloy of copper and zinc. It has a muted yellow
color, somewhat similar to gold. It contains same proportion
of copper and zinc in their combination means 50% copper
and 50% zinc. It is often used as decoration and for coins. In
antiquity, polished brass was often used as a mirror.

134. • Brass has higher malleability than zinc or copper. It
has a melting point (900 centigrade) and flows when
melted making it easy to cast in molds.
Combinations of iron, aluminum, silicon and
manganese make brass wear and tear and corrosion
resistant. Susceptible to stress cracking when
exposed to ammonia.
• Brass is often used for decoration, statues and
coins for its bright gold-like appearance and its
relative resistance to tarnishing and atmospheric
corrosion.

135. Bronze
Brass

136. Bronze
Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually
with tin as the main additive. It is hard and tough and resist
surface wear and highly corrosion resistant .
The proportions of copper and tin varied widely (from 67 to 95
percent copper and 5-25% tin in surviving artifacts), but, by the
Middle Ages in Europe, certain proportions were known to yield
specific properties
Bronze is hard and brittle. It melts at a slightly higher
temperature at 950 centigrade, but this depends on the amount
of tin present in the alloy. Bronze resists corrosion (especially
seawater corrosion) and metal fatigue more than steel and is
also a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels.
Bronze is ideally used today for springs, bearings,
bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar
fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of
small electric motors

137. Gunmetal
A gunmetal, a bronze, an alloy of copper, tin, and a small
amount of zinc.
Originally used extensively for making guns (from which it
received its name), it has been superseded by steel, and it is
now chiefly employed in casting machine parts.
The so-called 88–10–2 (copper-tin-zinc) alloy is the
"government bronze," composed of 88% copper, 10% tin,
and 2% zinc.
The percentages of the three elements are varied slightly in
gun metals produced for different purposes.
The metal commonly called gunmetal today is very often
steel treated to simulate the bronze alloy. In other cases,
copper and tin are used alone; in still others, copper, tin, and
lead are used

138. Alclad is a trademark of Alcoa used as a generic term to
describe corrosion resistant Aluminum sheet formed from
high-purity aluminum surface layers metallurgically
bonded to high strength Aluminum Alloy core material.
These sheets commonly used by the aircraft industry
Sherardising is a method of galvanizing also called vapor
galvanizing. A layer of zinc is applied to the metal target
object by heating the object in an airtight container with
zinc powder. The temperature that the container reaches
does not exceed the melting point of zinc. Another method
of sherardisation is to expose the intended objects to vapor
from molten zinc using a reducing gas to prevent oxidation.
PROTECTING METALS