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TL1011




       Assignment 2




Name: Thushan Dharmawardana

                              Index no: 101414G

                              Submission date: 22/11/2010
What is the objective of constructing a new highway?

Transport is an activity that is needed to attain some other work. Because of this reason we affirm
transport is a derived demand. With the rising population the demand for transport increases
proportionally. Assume that there are two cities A and B where the two cities are connected by a road
which doesn’t have enough capacity to accommodate the vehicle flow. Because of this there occurs lot
of issues about transportation. The issues can be stated as follows.

           o   Heavier traffic congestion.
           o   Larger travel, waiting and transfer time.
           o   Higher cost and opportunity cost.
           o   Lower utility level of passengers.
           o   Less interaction among the cities.

To overcome these issues a new highway can be constructed.

The demand for that highway can be estimated using following theories.

           a. Land use approach
           b. Gravity model
           c. Economic theory

For instance assume that there are two cities A and B where those differ from each other when
considering socioeconomic cultural and other parameters.

       A                                                                                B



   a) Land use approach

This theory mainly explains how the trips are made between different land uses. Every terrain of land
has some use. Mainly land is used in agriculture, industrial, commercial and residential purposes. The
amount of trips generated and attracted differs according to land use. For example commercial area
attracts more trips than a residential area.

   1. The reason for total trips

This depends mainly on the different land uses. For example assume A as city of Colombo and B as city
of Kandy. Colombo is more a commercial city and Kandy is more likely a cultural city. In this case
Colombo is the highest trip attractor because it is a commercial city vice versa Kandy is the highest trip
generator. The attraction and generation rate vary from each other and the models have to be calibrated
according to follows.

Functions of transport                                                                              Page 2
The trip generation

Quantity       number of persons

       Quality                  distribution of population

       Intensity                Income, ownership of vehicles

       The trip attraction

       This differs according to the purpose of the trip

       Trip attraction to an office in Colombo depends on

       Quantity                 number of employees

       Quality                  number of employees with own vehicles

       Intensity                nature of the business

       Trip attraction to a cultural zone in Kandy depends on

       Quantity                 number of persons willing to visit cultural zones

       Quality                  number of people with own vehicles

       Intensity                the value of the cultural zone

As described above there are many causes for trip attraction and generation. As per the land use theory
the trip attraction and generation models should be calculated for each and every aspect of travel before
implementing a high way.

    2. The reason for restraints to trips

As mentioned earlier land use approach is based on the trip end. If we consider a barren land the total
trips attracted and generated by that zone will be around zero. If a land is used for some antisocial
activity the trips attracted to that zone will be very low

                                          No trip                           A land
                                                                            without any
                                          attraction or
A                                                                  B        use to the
                                          generation                        society




Functions of transport                                                                              Page 3
As we can observe from the above graph the undeveloped and unused lands are a restraint for total trips
between two zones. A highway definitely not joins a barren land and a land with use.



   3. The competition with railways and air travel

Assume that there is a railway line and a highway newly built between Sri Lanka and India. Then there
would be a definite competition between these three modes. We can identify Sri Lanka as a more
recreational island where India is more religious and commercial city.


     Sri Lanka                                             India

     Small population                                      Large population

     Low income levels of people                           High income levels

     Higher price of goods                                 Lower price

     Less tourist destinations (religious)                 More tourist destinations


Higher value for trip generation model                    Higher value for trip attraction model

As shown above there would be more trips towards India that the density of travel desire lines would
increase for that side. So there would be more travel demand from Sri Lanka to India. There would be a
higher competition between the three modes from Sri Lanka to India. Usually air travel is more
expensive so Indians would demand for air travel while Sri Lankans would demand for highway and
railway. There would be a more competition between the high way and railway among Sri Lankan
population.

   b) Gravity model

This theory illustrates how the traffic flow between two travels zones increases with the population mass
and the distance between two zones.



                                             D12
                                                                                       City 2, pop 2
       City 1, pop 1



The theory states that the traffic flow between two zones (generators and attractors) increases
multiplicatively with the population mass of travel zones and the traffic flow increases when two zones
are closer to each other.

Functions of transport                                                                                 Page 4
Functions of transport   Page 5
1. The reason for total trips

Consider the three countries A, B and C. The trips between these zones are as follows.



                                               C




              A

                                                                          B




            PA> PB > PC               P - Population of each country

            DAC <DBC =DABD- Distance between countries

            TAC >TAB> TBC                   T- Traffic flow between countries



As shown in the graph the population in A is the highest. Because A and C are the closest as per the
gravity model the traffic flow between these two countries are the highest. The traffic flow between B
and C is the lowest according to the gravity model.

Assume that a new highway is built merging these three countries. The total trips between country A and
C are the highest so the demand for a new highway is higher between A and C countries.

2. The reason for restraint to trips


   Low population
                                                                              More restraint for
   High distance between two travel                                           trips
   zones


Functions of transport                                                                             Page 6
If we consider the above example of three countries it is clearly visible that when the distance between
two countries increases the traffic flow between those countries decreases conversely. When the
population decreases the traffic flow tends to decrease. The implementation of a new high way should
never be between two countries which are far away and with lesser population.

According to the gravity model distance and population are not only the measures of separation of two
travel zones regarding the restraint to mobility. The restraint to travel is usually measured by the time
and cost.

Assume that a person who uses the normal road which connects A and B have to spend a 1 hour and
Rs.30 for the completion of the journey.
                                                  Generalized cost = α + 30

                   1 hour and Rs.30
A                                                                      B

α-value per an hour

Because it is necessary to convert these two units into one unit the concept of generalized costmakes
these two units to a one unit by giving a value to the time.

Assume that A, B are connected together by a new highway the time and cost would change.

If the new values are ½ an hour and Rs. 25 the generalized cost would be follows.

                                                    Generalized cost = α/2 + 25

                 ½ an hour and Rs.25
A                                                                      B

It is evident that α/2 + 25 < α + 50. That means the implementation of a highway would make the
generalized cost lower and the restraints for total trips lower and make the passengers utility level high.



3. The competition with railways and air travel

Assume the example of three countries above when estimating the travel demand the population and the
distance between each country should be considered. The demand between the three modes would differ
from route to route. As shown above there would be a higher demand for the highway and railway
between the countries A and C because those countries are very adjacent and the generalized cost is
lower. There would be a higher demand for air travel in the routes AB and BC. The reason for that is the
countries A and C are distant from country B and the generalized cost between routes AB and BC lower
in air travel because the travel is at a low level.


Functions of transport                                                                                Page 7
c) Economic theory

This theory is a cost based approach to travel demand. This is based on the observation that transport is a
derived demand.

The demand for mode of transport available for the same trip has described by the above theory as mode
choice and the demand for travel via two or more routes to the destination has described by the route
choice.

  1. The reason for total trips

As declared earlier transport is a thing use to attain some other work. Every person has needs, to fulfill
them they should transport from place to place.

Let us consider a very possible example of two cities A and B where city A produces tea and the citizens
of city B consumes tea.

 Tea                                                                                   Tea
 producer                                                                              consumer

  A                                                                                             B

The tea production has to be transported from A to B. If there isn’t a better connectivity between these
two cities the consumers of B have to pay a higher price for that commodity because the additional
transport cost added to the selling price. Also the vendors from city A cannot sell a large amount
because the demand for that good is lower. The execution of a new highway linking these two cities
would make the transport cost lower and the price of tea would decrease consequently the demand for
that commodity increases and the producers would also be stimulated to increase their production.




Functions of transport                                                                               Page 8
As shown above the price will decrease and the supply will increase with the implementation of a new
highway.

  2. The reason for restraint to trips

Assume that there are two cities P and Q where there is only English speaking population in city P. The
city Q consists of Sinhala speaking population. The cities are located very close to each other but the
demand for travel is at a low level because of the language variation there is a restraint for total trips
between cities P and Q so construction of a highway joining these two cities would not be a good idea.

If there is a market at point A all the people close to the market would come to purchase commodities
from that market. But the transport cost restraints people coming to that market. So there is a particular




Functions of transport                                                                               Page 9
range where the customers spread around.
                                                          The range of
                                                          customers
                                                          before the
                                                          construction of
                                                          highway

                                                          The range of
                                                          customers after
                                                          the construction
                                                          of highway




As shown above that range of customers would increase by diminishing the restraint to travel if a new
highway is constructed.

    3. The competition with railways and air travel



                 Railway



A        High way                                               B



                    Air travel




Functions of transport                                                                          Page 10
As illustrated above there are 3 modes to travel from A to B. Each mode would give the user a different
utility level. The utility level is calculated by the fare for the mode, travel time for the mode and the
access time for the mode.

A person can travel from A to B by bus, train or airplane. If the model share for train and airplane is
high then there would be a lower demand for the highway.

Implementation of a new high way should be done if the model share for a vehicle on the high way is
high considering the railway and air travel.

As per the above three theories we can estimate the travel demand for a highway.




Functions of transport                                                                              Page 11

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What is the objective of constructing a highway

  • 1. TL1011 Assignment 2 Name: Thushan Dharmawardana Index no: 101414G Submission date: 22/11/2010
  • 2. What is the objective of constructing a new highway? Transport is an activity that is needed to attain some other work. Because of this reason we affirm transport is a derived demand. With the rising population the demand for transport increases proportionally. Assume that there are two cities A and B where the two cities are connected by a road which doesn’t have enough capacity to accommodate the vehicle flow. Because of this there occurs lot of issues about transportation. The issues can be stated as follows. o Heavier traffic congestion. o Larger travel, waiting and transfer time. o Higher cost and opportunity cost. o Lower utility level of passengers. o Less interaction among the cities. To overcome these issues a new highway can be constructed. The demand for that highway can be estimated using following theories. a. Land use approach b. Gravity model c. Economic theory For instance assume that there are two cities A and B where those differ from each other when considering socioeconomic cultural and other parameters. A B a) Land use approach This theory mainly explains how the trips are made between different land uses. Every terrain of land has some use. Mainly land is used in agriculture, industrial, commercial and residential purposes. The amount of trips generated and attracted differs according to land use. For example commercial area attracts more trips than a residential area. 1. The reason for total trips This depends mainly on the different land uses. For example assume A as city of Colombo and B as city of Kandy. Colombo is more a commercial city and Kandy is more likely a cultural city. In this case Colombo is the highest trip attractor because it is a commercial city vice versa Kandy is the highest trip generator. The attraction and generation rate vary from each other and the models have to be calibrated according to follows. Functions of transport Page 2
  • 3. The trip generation Quantity number of persons Quality distribution of population Intensity Income, ownership of vehicles The trip attraction This differs according to the purpose of the trip Trip attraction to an office in Colombo depends on Quantity number of employees Quality number of employees with own vehicles Intensity nature of the business Trip attraction to a cultural zone in Kandy depends on Quantity number of persons willing to visit cultural zones Quality number of people with own vehicles Intensity the value of the cultural zone As described above there are many causes for trip attraction and generation. As per the land use theory the trip attraction and generation models should be calculated for each and every aspect of travel before implementing a high way. 2. The reason for restraints to trips As mentioned earlier land use approach is based on the trip end. If we consider a barren land the total trips attracted and generated by that zone will be around zero. If a land is used for some antisocial activity the trips attracted to that zone will be very low No trip A land without any attraction or A B use to the generation society Functions of transport Page 3
  • 4. As we can observe from the above graph the undeveloped and unused lands are a restraint for total trips between two zones. A highway definitely not joins a barren land and a land with use. 3. The competition with railways and air travel Assume that there is a railway line and a highway newly built between Sri Lanka and India. Then there would be a definite competition between these three modes. We can identify Sri Lanka as a more recreational island where India is more religious and commercial city. Sri Lanka India Small population Large population Low income levels of people High income levels Higher price of goods Lower price Less tourist destinations (religious) More tourist destinations Higher value for trip generation model Higher value for trip attraction model As shown above there would be more trips towards India that the density of travel desire lines would increase for that side. So there would be more travel demand from Sri Lanka to India. There would be a higher competition between the three modes from Sri Lanka to India. Usually air travel is more expensive so Indians would demand for air travel while Sri Lankans would demand for highway and railway. There would be a more competition between the high way and railway among Sri Lankan population. b) Gravity model This theory illustrates how the traffic flow between two travels zones increases with the population mass and the distance between two zones. D12 City 2, pop 2 City 1, pop 1 The theory states that the traffic flow between two zones (generators and attractors) increases multiplicatively with the population mass of travel zones and the traffic flow increases when two zones are closer to each other. Functions of transport Page 4
  • 6. 1. The reason for total trips Consider the three countries A, B and C. The trips between these zones are as follows. C A B PA> PB > PC P - Population of each country DAC <DBC =DABD- Distance between countries TAC >TAB> TBC T- Traffic flow between countries As shown in the graph the population in A is the highest. Because A and C are the closest as per the gravity model the traffic flow between these two countries are the highest. The traffic flow between B and C is the lowest according to the gravity model. Assume that a new highway is built merging these three countries. The total trips between country A and C are the highest so the demand for a new highway is higher between A and C countries. 2. The reason for restraint to trips Low population More restraint for High distance between two travel trips zones Functions of transport Page 6
  • 7. If we consider the above example of three countries it is clearly visible that when the distance between two countries increases the traffic flow between those countries decreases conversely. When the population decreases the traffic flow tends to decrease. The implementation of a new high way should never be between two countries which are far away and with lesser population. According to the gravity model distance and population are not only the measures of separation of two travel zones regarding the restraint to mobility. The restraint to travel is usually measured by the time and cost. Assume that a person who uses the normal road which connects A and B have to spend a 1 hour and Rs.30 for the completion of the journey. Generalized cost = α + 30 1 hour and Rs.30 A B α-value per an hour Because it is necessary to convert these two units into one unit the concept of generalized costmakes these two units to a one unit by giving a value to the time. Assume that A, B are connected together by a new highway the time and cost would change. If the new values are ½ an hour and Rs. 25 the generalized cost would be follows. Generalized cost = α/2 + 25 ½ an hour and Rs.25 A B It is evident that α/2 + 25 < α + 50. That means the implementation of a highway would make the generalized cost lower and the restraints for total trips lower and make the passengers utility level high. 3. The competition with railways and air travel Assume the example of three countries above when estimating the travel demand the population and the distance between each country should be considered. The demand between the three modes would differ from route to route. As shown above there would be a higher demand for the highway and railway between the countries A and C because those countries are very adjacent and the generalized cost is lower. There would be a higher demand for air travel in the routes AB and BC. The reason for that is the countries A and C are distant from country B and the generalized cost between routes AB and BC lower in air travel because the travel is at a low level. Functions of transport Page 7
  • 8. c) Economic theory This theory is a cost based approach to travel demand. This is based on the observation that transport is a derived demand. The demand for mode of transport available for the same trip has described by the above theory as mode choice and the demand for travel via two or more routes to the destination has described by the route choice. 1. The reason for total trips As declared earlier transport is a thing use to attain some other work. Every person has needs, to fulfill them they should transport from place to place. Let us consider a very possible example of two cities A and B where city A produces tea and the citizens of city B consumes tea. Tea Tea producer consumer A B The tea production has to be transported from A to B. If there isn’t a better connectivity between these two cities the consumers of B have to pay a higher price for that commodity because the additional transport cost added to the selling price. Also the vendors from city A cannot sell a large amount because the demand for that good is lower. The execution of a new highway linking these two cities would make the transport cost lower and the price of tea would decrease consequently the demand for that commodity increases and the producers would also be stimulated to increase their production. Functions of transport Page 8
  • 9. As shown above the price will decrease and the supply will increase with the implementation of a new highway. 2. The reason for restraint to trips Assume that there are two cities P and Q where there is only English speaking population in city P. The city Q consists of Sinhala speaking population. The cities are located very close to each other but the demand for travel is at a low level because of the language variation there is a restraint for total trips between cities P and Q so construction of a highway joining these two cities would not be a good idea. If there is a market at point A all the people close to the market would come to purchase commodities from that market. But the transport cost restraints people coming to that market. So there is a particular Functions of transport Page 9
  • 10. range where the customers spread around. The range of customers before the construction of highway The range of customers after the construction of highway As shown above that range of customers would increase by diminishing the restraint to travel if a new highway is constructed. 3. The competition with railways and air travel Railway A High way B Air travel Functions of transport Page 10
  • 11. As illustrated above there are 3 modes to travel from A to B. Each mode would give the user a different utility level. The utility level is calculated by the fare for the mode, travel time for the mode and the access time for the mode. A person can travel from A to B by bus, train or airplane. If the model share for train and airplane is high then there would be a lower demand for the highway. Implementation of a new high way should be done if the model share for a vehicle on the high way is high considering the railway and air travel. As per the above three theories we can estimate the travel demand for a highway. Functions of transport Page 11