Running head ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE1ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.docx

Running head: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 1
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 5
Advantages of Artificial Intelligences, Uploads, and Digital
Minds
First Article
The first article states that the term artificial intelligence
currently impact our lives and civilization. The extents of an
artificial intelligence application are different with extensive
probabilities. In specific, as of improvement and developments
in computer hardware, isolated artificial intelligence algorithm
already exceed the abilities of human specialists today. The
empire of probable uses of artificial intelligence techniques is
vast. Also, this is one of the causes why several corporations
have been deeply investing in AI in current years. Google
Corporation is constructing self-driving automobiles and cars
also has developed ten robotics corporations, Facebook had
released a new investigation facility concentrated on AL
intelligence.
On the other hand, “Apple has industrialized Siri, Microsoft has
constructed Cortana, and Google has developed Deep Mind.” A
UK company who long-term objective is to construct a usual AI
also has previously displayed wide possibility in engaging at
the game of “Go the current world champion.” IBM is investing
a wide amount of assets during applying its “Watson reasoning
computing system” to the health domain, to economics, also to
adapted education. This growth of AI-based services and
systems are getting all bends of the globe. As per the article, AI

is not regarding computing authority. Intelligent machines and
system can also relay on wide amounts of information, to be
used to investigate how to make fine decisions.
This information and data originate from all of the people. Over
many years, Facebook workers have uploaded 250 billion
images. Also they upload around 350 million regularly. The
point that a recent AI artificial intelligence can make more
precise medical detects than doctors might seem astonishing
initially, but it has been accepted that arithmetical implications
are greater to medical judgments through human specialists in
many situations. Progress and development in AI investigation
make it probable to substitute rising amounts of human
occupations with many advanced machines (Sotala, 2012).
Artificial and Intelligences and its Role in
Near Future.
Second Article
The second article describes that AI knowledge has long past
which is constantly and actively growing and modifying. If
emphasis on many intelligent agents, that consists devices that
observe background also reliant on which take many actions to
enhance the chances of success. In the context of a current
digitalized domain, AI is the assets of computer programs,
machines and systems to achieve the creative and intellectual
functions of an individual, self-sufficiently recognize several
methods to resolve any issue, be capable of defining
conclusions also make decisions. Many AI systems can acquire,
which enables people to recover their routine and performance.
The current investigation on AI tools, comprising machine
knowledge, predictive examination, and deep learning
envisioned towards growing the planning, reasoning, learning,
and thinking with action pleasing ability. AI states to the
potential or possibility of computer-controlled robots to perform
functions and tasks that similar to people. In this situation, AI
is used to implement several robots that have several human

rational characteristics, learning and behavior from previous
experience, have human intellectual characteristics, behaviors,
learning from experience, have capabilities to sense, and to
making estimations also describes the meaning of an isolated
situation.
As per the article, robotic technology is widely trending in the
recent life which has attained popularity in several sectors like
industries, schools, hospitals, military, gaming, music,
important science, and several others. AI is a well-organized
means that make software and computers control robotic
discerning with expert arrangements that knowingly exemplify
the intelligent performance, knowledge and efficiently advice
operators. In simple words, AI is generally recognized as the
potential or ability of robotics to take effective decisions and to
resolve several issues. The term artificial intelligence becomes
ver7 beneficial for an organization as it helps to rise the growth
and productivity of an organization (Jahanzaib Shabbir, 2015).
References
Jahanzaib Shabbir, a. T. (2015). Artificial Intelligence and its
Role in Near Future . JOURNAL OF LATEX CLASS FILES, 1-
11.
Sotala, K. (2012). Advantages of Artificial Intelligences,
Uploads, and Digital Minds. International Journal of Machine
Consciousness , 275–291.

JOURNAL OF LATEX CLASS FILES, VOL. 14, NO. 8,
AUGUST 2015 1
Artificial Intelligence and its Role in Near Future
Jahanzaib Shabbir, and Tarique Anwer
Abstract—AI technology has long history which is actively and
constantly changing and growing. It focuses on intelligent
agents,
which contains devices that perceives environment and based on
which takes actions in order to maximize goal success chances.
In
this paper, we will explain the modern AI basics and various
representative applications of AI. In context of modern
digitalized world,
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the property of machines,
computer programs and systems to perform the intellectual and
creative functions
of a person, independently find ways to solve problems, be able
to draw conclusions and make decisions. Most artificial
intelligence
systems have the ability to learn, which allows people to
improve their performance over time. The recent research on AI
tools,
including machine learning, deep learning and predictive
analysis intended toward increasing the planning, learning,
reasoning,
thinking and action taking ability [1]. Based on which, the
proposed research intended towards exploring on how the
human intelligence

differs from the artificial intelligence [2]. In addition, on how
and in what way, the current artificial intelligence is clever than
the human
beings. Moreover, we critically analyze what the state-of-the art
AI of today is capable of doing, why it still cannot reach human
level
intelligence and what are the open challenges existing in front
of AI to reach and outperform human level of intelligence.
Furthermore, it
will explore the future predictions for artificial intelligence and
based on which potential solution will be recommended to solve
it within
next decades [2].
F
1 INTRODUCTION
The term intelligence refers to the ability to acquire
and apply different skills and knowledge to solve a given
problem. In addition, intelligence is also concerned with
the use of general mental capability to solve, reason, and
learning various situations [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10],
[11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21],
[22], [23]. Intelligence is integrated with various cognitive
functions such as; language, attention, planning, memory,
perception. The evolution of intelligence can basically is
studied about in the last ten years. Intelligence involves
both Human and Artificial Intelligence . In this case, critical
human intelligence is concerned with solving problems,
reasoning and learning. Furthermore, humans have simple
complex behaviors which they can easily learn in their entire
life [24].
2 WHICH OF THESE AND IN WHAT LEVEL CAN TO-
DAYS ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE DO?

Todays Artificial Intelligence (robotics) has the capabilities
to imitate human intelligence, performing various tasks
that require thinking and learning, solve problems and
make various decisions. Artificial Intelligence software or
programs that are inserted into robots, computers, or other
related systems which them necessary thinking ability [25].
However, much of the current Artificial Intelligence systems
(robotics) are still under debate as they still need more
research on their way of solving tasks. Therefore Artificial
Intelligence machines or systems should be in position to
perform the required tasks by without exercising errors.
In addition, Robotics should be in position to perform
various tasks without any human control or assistance
[24]. Todays artificial intelligence such as robotic cars are
highly progressing with high performance capabilities such
as controlling traffic, minimizing their speed, making from
self-driving cars to the SIRI, the artificial intelligence is
rapidly progressing [26]. The current attention towards por-
traying the artificial intelligence in robots for developing
the human-like characteristics considerably increases the
human dependence towards the technology. In addition,
the artificial intelligence (AI) ability towards effectively
performing every narrower and cognitive task considerably
increases the peoples dependence towards the technology
[27]. Artificial intelligence (AI) tools having the ability
to process huge amounts of data by computers can give
those who control them and analyze all the information.
Today, this considerably increases the threat which makes
someone’s ability to extract and analyze data in a massive
way [24]. Recently, Artificial intelligence is reflected as the
artificial representation of human brain which tries to sim-
ulate their learning process with the aim of mimicking the
human brain power. It is necessary to reassure everyone that
artificial intelligence equal to that of human brain which is
unable to be created [25]. Till now, we operate only part

of our capabilities. As currently, the level of knowledge is
rapidly developing, it takes only a part of the human brain.
As the potential of human brain is incommensurably higher
than we can now imagine and prove. Within human brain,
there are approximately 100 trillion electrically conducting
cells or neurons, which provide an incredible computing
power to perform the tasks rapidly and efficiently. It is
analyzed from the research that till now computer has the
ability to perform the tasks of multiplication of 134,341 by
989,999 in an efficient manner but still unable to perform the
things like the learning and changing the understanding of
world and recognition of human faces [28].
3 WHERE DOES THE HUMAN INTELLIGENCE DIF-
FER FROM AI?
Artificial intelligence refers to the potential of computer
controlled machines/robots towards performing tasks that
that almost or similar to human beings. In this case, Ar-
tificial intelligence is used to develop various robots that
have human intellectual characteristics, behaviors, learning
from past experience, have abilities to sense, and abilities
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to making predications and determine meaning of certain
situation [29]. Robotic technology is largely trending in
the current life which has gained popularity in various
sectors such as industries, hospitals, schools, military, music,
gaming, quantum science and many others [28]. Artificial
Intelligence is an efficient means that make computers and
software control robotic thinking with expert systems that
significantly illustrate the intelligent behavior, learning and
effectively advice users. In general, AI is basically known as
the ability or potential of robotics to decide, solve problems
and reason [30]. There are various innovations of Artificial
Intelligence, for example robotic cars which dont require a
driver to control or supervise them. In addition, artificially
intelligent technology (robots) involves smart machines that
process a large amount of data that a human being cant

be in position to perform. By so robotics are assuming
repetitive duties that require creativity and knowledge base.
Furthermore, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the combination
of various technologies that give chance to robotics to un-
derstand, learn, perceive or complete human activities on
their own [2]. In this case, Artificial Intelligence programs
(robots) are built for a specific purpose such as learning,
acting and understating whereas humans intelligence is
basically concerned with various abilities of multitasking.
In general, an Artificial Intelligence tool is majorly con-
cerned with emphasizing robotics which portrays human
behaviors. But however, Artificial Intelligence may fail out
at some points due to differences in human brain and
computers. In brief, Artificial Intelligence has the potential
to mimic human character or behaviors [31]. Furthermore,
Artificial intelligence is currently partially developed with-
out advanced abilities to learn on their own but instead
given commands to act on. This will be the ultimate future
of artificial intelligence, where the AI machines will be
recognized the human behavior and emotions and will train
their kernel as per it [32].
4 WHY CANT WE TELL THAT TODAYS AI IS AS
CLEVER AS HUMAN BEINGS?
Generally, there are various paths towards building the
intelligent machines that enables the humans to build the
super-intelligent machines and provide ability to machines
towards redesigning their own programming in order to
increase their intelligence level, which is usually considered
as the intelligence explosion. In contrast, the shielded hu-
man hunt is basically the emotion. The breakthrough of
AI technology can frighten the humanity in a way that
machine are unable to effectively transmit the emotions.
So, there may be possibility that AI can support us with
the tasks and functions which usually not involves the

feelings and emotion. Till now, AI machines are not able
to control their process, for which they need the intelligence
and mind of human beings [32]. But AI development with
same pace may cause threat to the humanity, because the
self-learning ability may cause the AI machines to learn
destructive things, which may cause killing of humanity in
a drastic way. In general, there exist various characteristics
which distinguish human level intelligence with Artificial
intelligence and they include the following;
Thinking ability; it can be both positive as well as neg-
ative because of having emotions, which are not with AI
machines. The lack of machines emotion may lead to de-
structive in a situation where emotions are required. Russel
Stuart believes that machines would be able to think in a
weak manner. In general, there are things that computers
cannot do, regardless of how they are programmed and
certain ways of designing intelligent programs are doomed
to failure sooner or later [33]. Therefore, most accurate
idea would be to think that it is never going to make the
machines have a thought at least similar to human The lack
of thinking ability of machines may cause lack in passing
the behavioral test. What was later called the Turing Test,
proposed that a machine be able to converse before an
interrogation for five minutes for the year 2000 and in fact, it
was partly achieved. It is concluded then, that the machines
can actually think, although they can never have a sense
of humor, fall in love, learn from experience, know how
to distinguish the good from the bad and other attitudes
of the human. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach
dedicates its last chapter to wonder what would happen
if machines capable of thinking were conceived [34]. Then
it is when we ask ourselves if it is convenient to continue
with this project, take risks and follow an unknown path
and believe that what may happen will not be negative.
Russel and Norvig believe that AI machines role are to be

more optimistic. They believe that intelligent machines are
capable of ”improving the material circumstances in which
human life unfolds” and that in no way can they affect
our quality of life negatively. Reasoning; algorithms mimic
the phased reasoning that people use to solve puzzles and
guide logical conclusions. For complex tasks, algorithms
may require huge computational resources; most of them
experience ’combinatorial explosions’. Memory or required
computer time will be astronomical with tasks of a certain
size. Finding a more effective algorithm to solve the problem
is a top priority. Humans usually use quick and intuitive
judgment rather than gradual deductions modeled by ear-
lier AI studies. I made progress using the ”sub-symbol”
solution to the problem. The materialized approach of the
agent highlights the importance of sensory - motor skills for
higher reasoning. The search of the neural network attempts
to imitate the structure in the brain that generates this
skill. The statistical approach to AI mimics human guessing
abilities. Planning ability; the objection of those who defend
human intelligence against that of machines is based on the
fact that they do not possess creativity or consciousness.
Planning and creativity could be defined as the ability to
combine the elements at our disposal to give an efficient, or
beautiful, or shrewd solution to a problem we are facing.
That is, we call creativity what we have not yet been able
to explain and reproduce mechanically in our behavior.
However, the functioning of artificial neural networks can
also be considered creative but little predictable and plan
able [35]. Action taking ability; the action taking ability of
humans are based on emotions, deep thinking and its com-
parison with how much it is beneficial for the human beings
while AI only takes actions either based on their coding,
therefore, the lack of emotions and comparison about good
and bad increases threats. AI machines are actually very
intellectually limited, although they may become brilliant

AUGUST 2015 3
in specialization. A child in his earliest childhood is able to
learn to put the triangle in the hollow of the triangle of the
toy, can recognize the sounds of animals and begin to apply
what he learned on a stage in different ones. Machines are
not able to do this at the same time without being previously
trained for each task. Generally, there is no neural network
in the world capable of identifying objects, images, sounds
and playing video games at the same time as people [36]. Its
limitations are obvious even within the same field of action:
when Google’s Deep Mind created a system to pass Atari
video games, relatively simple for a computing entity due
to its two-dimensional progress based on reflexes and trial
and error, its neural networks they had to be trained every
time a game was completed. Machines are not capable of
transferring what they learn to other scenarios that catch
them off guard as well as humans can adapt, make use
of logic, creativity, ingenuity and reason in any situation,
however strange and new they may be [37].
Knowledge representation; it includes the problems ma-
chines which expresses the relationships between objects,
properties, categories, objects, situations, events, states, and
times. The potential cause and effect of knowledge repre-
sentation is based on what we know about what others
know of many other well-studied domains. The concept of
”what is present” is an ontology that officially describes
a set of objects, relationships, concepts, and properties so
that the softwares agent can significantly interpret it. The
semantics of this data are recognized as logic to describe
roles and descriptions which usually realized as ontology
web language classes, properties, and individuals. The most

common ontology is called a top ontology that provides
the basis of all other knowledge and acts as an intermedi-
ary between domain ontology covering specific knowledge
about a specific knowledge field. Such formal knowledge
representation is based on knowledge using content-based
indexing and searching, interpretation of scenarios, support
for clinical decisions, automatic reasoning [38]. Perception;
the machine perception is the ability to derive aspects of
the world using input signals from cameras, microphones,
sensors, sonar etc., while the computer vision is the ability
to analyze visual input. Learning ability; the development of
new algorithm considerably helps the AI machines to learn
to write like humans and is able to recognize and draw
very simple visual concepts. Generally, the main virtue of
human beings is their speed and diversity, when it comes
to learning new concepts and applying them in new situa-
tions. Computers usually have hard time generalizing from
particular samples. In addition, to assessing the ability of the
program to learn concepts, they asked people to reproduce
a series of characters that had also been plotted by the ma-
chine [38]. Then, they compared them and asked different
people what they thought had been done by humans and
what by a program, in an adaptation of the classic Turing
test that the researchers call visual Turing test. Basically the
Turing test is that someone in a room is asking questions to
determine if the answers and interactions they receive come
from a person or a machine. Therefore, machine learning
ability machines significantly makes it much better than that
of human being [38]. The natural language process system;
they give machines the ability to read and understand
human language. A sufficiently powerful natural language
processing system enables the use of user interfaces in
natural language and gains direct knowledge from written
sources such as news texts. Some simple natural language
processing applications include information retrieval, text

mining, machine translation etc [39]. The general way to
extract and process the natural language, it is essential to use
semantic indexing. These indices are expected to increase
efficiency as the user speeds up the processor and lower the
cost of storing the data despite the user’s input being large
[27].
5 GIVE A COMPREHENSIVE SURVEY OF WHAT CAN
TODAYS AI SUBFILELDS DO?
Todays artificial intelligence is creeping into our daily lives
by using the GPS navigation and check-scanning machines.
The use of artificial intelligence (AI) in business contributes
to the potentialization of various areas of daily life such
as customer service, finance, sales and marketing, admin-
istration and technical processes in various sectors. Un-
doubtedly, over the next few years, digital efforts will no
longer be isolated projects or initiatives in companies, but
the adoption of technologies such as AI at all levels and
processes of companies will be a reality to increase their
competitiveness. AI begins to integrate into the activities
of business. It is important to consider that it has not
arrived to replace human tasks, but to complement them
and allow people to develop their potential and creativity to
the maximum. Introduction of new technologies is a tool for
the prevention and fight against corruption, the traceability
of electronic actions, and the security that surrounds their
management favors confidence in management. This essay
will prove how artificial intelligence can improve efficiency
of people, help create jobs, and begin to make our soci-
ety safer for our children. Currently, massive research on
artificial intelligence significantly improving the world, in
which majority of the tasks was performed by the machines,
while the role of humans will be to control them. This leads
towards the question that is artificial intelligence exceeds the
performance level of humans and provide human task in an
efficient, quicker and economical level? The paper is about

the present and future of artificial intelligence technology
and compares it with human intelligence [39]. The role of
this paper is to explore where we are today and what will
be the ultimate future of AI technology, if we continuously
applied in every field. Further, we will analyses the potential
AI techniques and their potential benefits for improving the
system.
6 BRIEFLY EXPLAIN TECHNICAL BACKGROUND AS
WELL?
Artificial Intelligence has facilitated us in almost every field
of life and has immense scope in future for more produc-
tivity and betterment. The origin of artificial intelligence
goes back to the advances made by Alan Turing during
World War II in the decoding of messages. The term as
such was first used in 1950, but it was only in the 1980s
when research began to grow with the resolution of algebra
equations and analysis of texts in different languages. The
definitive takeoff of Artificial intelligence has come in the
AUGUST 2015 4
Fig. 1: Abilities of Artificial Intelligence
last decade with the growth of the internet and the power
of microprocessors [40]. ”Artificial intelligence may be the
most disturbing technology the world has ever seen since
the industrial revolution” Paul Daugherty, Accenture’s chief
technology officer, recently wrote in an article published
by the World Economic Forum. This field is now boom-
ing due to the increase in ubiquitous computing, low-
cost cloud services, new algorithms and other innovations,
adds Daugherty. Developments in Artificial Intelligence go

hand in hand with the development of processors that
over time have made them start to see these technologies
as intellectual, even changing our idea of intellect and
forthcoming the perceptions of ’machine’, traditionally un-
intelligent capacity previously assigned exclusively to man.
The AI was introduced to the scientific community in 1950
by the English Alan Turing in his article ”Computational
Machinery and Intelligence.” Although research on the de-
sign and capabilities of computers began some time ago, it
was not until Turing’s article appeared that the idea of an
intelligent machine captured the attention of scientists. The
work of Turing, who died prematurely, was continued in
the United States by John Von Neumann during the 1950s
[41]. His central contribution was the idea that computers
should be designed using the human brain as a model. Von
Neumann was the first to anthropomorphize the language
and conception of computing when speaking of memory,
sensors etc. of computers. He built a series of machines
using what in the early fifties was known about the human
brain, and designed the first programs stored in the memory
of a computer [27].
McCulloch (1950) formulate a radically different posi-
tion by arguing that the laws governing thought must be
sought between the rules that govern information and not
between those that govern matter. This idea opened great
possibilities for AI. In addition, Minsky (1959) modified his
position and argued that imitation of the brain at the cellular
level should be abandoned. The basic presuppositions of
the theoretical core of the AI were emphasis on recognition
of thought that can occur outside the brain [?], [42], [43],
[44]. On 1958, Shaw and Simon design the first intelligent
program based on their information processing model. This
model of Newell, Shaw and Simon was soon to become
the dominant theory in cognitive psychology. At the end

of the 19th century, sufficiently powerful formal logics were
obtained and by the middle of the 20th century, machines
capable of make use of such logics and solution algorithms.
7 WHAT IS MISSING TO TODAYS AI STILL TO BE
CALLED HUMAN LEVEL INTELLIGENCE?
Humans are different from Artificial Intelligence machine
physically in a sense that human race usually experiences
the same physical features while the machines takes several
forms and shapes. The trans-humanist vision analysis ex-
hibits us to believe that brains are principally the computers.
AI reports are the silicon based machines, which was con-
trolled by using the algorithm that reinforces entire internet
business. AI believes that once the computers have adequate
advanced algorithms, then they will be capable to replicate
and enhance the human mind [45]. The tests which exhibits
how much AI is distinct from the human intellectual are as
follows Turing test; in order to evaluate on what intelligence
means and on how the machine intelligence is different than
the human intelligence, the Turing test strongly provide the
AUGUST 2015 5
Fig. 2: Timeline evolution of Artificial Intelligence
Fig. 3: Turing test
essential insights to the AI field, which emphasis on how
the machine simulates the human thinking. The algorithmic
aspects of AI tools should pass the Turning Test [46]. This
algorithm will not essentially result in the AGI but may also
lean towards applied artificial intelligence. The algorithm
tuned through Turing process can also significantly define

and passed it.
Eugene Goostman Test; Goostman tests the Turing test
and concluded that it has 33% fooling, which intended him
to propose test that should rely on AI in order to efficiently
solve the particular tasks that was quite near to AGI. He
also concluded that it is not possible for AI machines to be
much efficient than that of human because their always acts
human actors to work the AI machine.
8 IMPORTANCE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Artificial Intelligence will revolutionize the way in which
different companies across compete and grow across the
world by representing a new production factor that can
drive business profitability [4], [5], [6], [47], [48], [49]. In
order to realize the opportunity of AI, most the companies
in the world are already developing actively in various
Artificial Intelligence strategies [47].In addition, they should
focus on developing responsible AI systems aligned with
ethical and moral values that lead to positive feedback and
empower people to do what they know best such as innova-
tion [50]. With the introduction of successfully implemented
Artificial Intelligence (AI) solutions, many industries across
the earth can benefit from increased profitability and still
count on economic growth. To capitalize on this opportu-
nity, the study identifies eight strategies for the successful
implementation of AI that focuses on adopting a human-
centric approach and taking innovative and responsible
measures for the application of technology to companies
and organizations in the world [51], [52], [53], [54], [55]. The
construction of intelligent machines in various industries
presupposes the existence of symbolic structures, the ability
of them to demand and the existence of knowledge (raw
material). Once artificial intelligence has intelligence equal
to or greater than man’s, political and social change will

inevitably arise, in which AI has all the advantages of
gaining if it realizes that it does not need humans to colonize
the universe [39], [56], [57], [58]. Recent advancement in
artificial technology depicts orbiting communications satel-
lites in the space with its 486 processors. In the future, self-
replicating artificial intelligence could easily be made with
all human colonies outside the earth, and the human race
will never be able to fight in the empty space on equal terms
[45].
9 KNOWLEDGE BASED TOWARDS UNDERSTAND-
ING THE NATURAL LANGUAGE
The most significant characteristics of the natural language
are that it has the ability to serve as its particular meta-
language. It is easily possible to utilize the natural language
AUGUST 2015 6
in order to provide instruction in the use as well as describe
the language itself (Weston et al., 2015). It is because, human
usually capable to utilize their natural language to describe
about natural language itself. The advancement in the nat-
ural language understanding significantly provide effective
educable cognitive agent role whose task domain contains
the understanding of language and whose discourse do-
main contains the knowledge of their own language.
10 SPATIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE COMPUTA-
TION FOR NARRATIVE TEXT UNDERSTANDING
This AI technique provide the spatial references which
explicitly build in order to indicate on how the reference

frame should be established and provide the determination
of burden of its determination is left to the hearers or the
readers inferences. Its also intended towards developing
heuristics which significantly aid for dynamically comput-
ing of reference frames. The rule based expert systems; they
have important characteristics related to multiple produc-
tion rules and levels that embody the knowledge of the
distinct document images characteristics. Its includes the
inference engine which utilizes the knowledge base in order
to have identities interpretations of several blocks logical
within the image [45], [59], [60]. The control inference engine
is applied in several distinct rules levels on the image data
for blocks identification. The lowest rule level is the knowl-
edge rule that examines the intrinsic blocks properties. The
control rules act and guide the search as the mechanism of
focuses on attention. The strategy rules determine whether
the constant image interpretation has been achieved or not.
The cognitive letter recognition model; it is based on the
feature models utilization. Within the acquisition time, the
letters is subjected towards developing the object oriented
quad tree model. In general, all of the acquired letters are
integrated into object knowledge, similar quad tree and
density values. At the time of recognition, the densities and
quad tree analysis of the current letter are related to store
quad tree density.
11 WHAT ARE OPEN CHALLENGES?
Challenges of AI technology include the following; Within
near future, the artificial intelligence goals were to affect
the society from law and economics in several technical
terms including security, verification, validity, and control
[45], [61], [62], [63], [64], [65]. The major short-term threats of
Artificial Intelligence include the devastating race of arms in
fatal autonomous weapons and full dependence of our life
on technology will eventually lead to unemployment prob-

lem, social discrimination and power inequality in societies.
long term use of robotics will create a big challenge includes
to human beings as they will take over the world. In addi-
tion, with in a given period of time, AI will become better in
solving tasks compared to human beings hence lose of jobs.
For example drivers will be ruled over by robotic cars, tellers
will be out competed by robotic tellers and many others [66],
[67], [68]. As a result of Artificial Intelligence out competing
humans will create a big challenge on human thinking.
But in the positive side, the AI technology advancement
can also considerably aid for eradicating the disease, war
and poverty level. Rapid research of Artificial intelligence
in robotics is reflected as the large existential threats that
are faced by the humanity. The destructive method de-
veloped in the artificial intelligent robot can also increase
the risk for the super-intelligent system. For example, the
ambitious project of geo-engineering can wreak havoc of
ecosystem. This considerably increases the concerns about
the AI system advancement which is not malevolence but
have increased competency. Although, the super-intelligent
artificial intelligence tools can considerably aid in fulfilling
the goals un-alignment of goals may cause an increasing
problem [26], [31], [36], [37], [50], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73].
Artificial intelligence is simply the next wave of automation,
which considerably allows the machines to do tasks that
previously required attention and human intelligence. In the
short term it can replace people, but above all, it changes
the nature of the work that humans do. In the long run,
automation creates more and different types of jobs, which
is why not everyone has jobs today. Further, challenges
include the large dependence of people towards technol-
ogy for their work. This considerably increases several
psychological, physical and mental issues. In order hand,
it considerably reduces the unemployment, economic and
power balance and disability. It is believed that until the

end of 2021, there will be the beginning of a disruptive
tidal wave of artificially intelligent robots in our daily life,
such solutions powered by cognitive or artificial intelligence
technology will significantly displace the jobs, with the great
impact felt in logistics, transportation, consumer services
and educational process. Furthermore, it can considerably
increase the privacy, security and authenticity issues within
the society.
12 WHAT ARE SOLUTION SUGGESTIONS?
To reduce the destructive effects of AI, it is essential to
develop the symbolic approach, which should allow us to
operate with weakly formalized representations and their
meanings. The success and effectiveness of solving new
problems depend on the ability to allocate only essential
information, which requires flexibility in the methods of
abstraction. While a normal program sets one’s own way of
interpreting the data, which makes its work look prejudiced
and purely mechanical. The intellectual task, in this case,
solves only the person, the analyst or the programmer,
not knowing to entrust this machine. As a result, a sin-
gle abstraction model is created, a system of constructive
essences and algorithms. And flexibility and universality
translate into significant resource costs for non-typical tasks,
that is, the system from the intellect returns to brute force.
Furthermore, the hybrid approach should also be developed
in order to provide the synergistic combination of neural
and symbolic models achieves a full range of cognitive
and computational capabilities. For example, expert rules
of inference can be generated by neural networks, and
generating rules are obtained through statistical training.
Supporters of this approach believe that hybrid information
systems will be much stronger than the sum of different
concepts separately. Furthermore, to decrease the potential
threats of artificial intelligent technology, the rational risk
management process that includes the potential principles

AUGUST 2015 7
Fig. 4: Rule-based expert system structure
of adopting the expensive precautions, which have high cost
even for the lower probability risks, can considerably pro-
vide the benefits (Russell et al., 1995). The global nature of
artificial intelligence risks if fails to transfer the ethical goals
then its absolutely reasonable to estimate the longer-term AI
research risks as even larger than those of climate change.
It is also essential to adopt effective information system
which should be established in order to effectively improve
the artificial intelligence safety by initiating the awareness
on the experts working part on AI, decision-makers, and
investors. The risks information integrated with AI progress
should also have to understandable and accessible for the
broad audience. In addition, it is also instigated to adopt
the AI safety tools in order to reduce the authentication and
security issues. It is also essential to develop an effective
global coordination and cooperation system in order to
build the competitive environment in which the dangerous
race of artificial intelligent arms should be reduced [?],
[46], [51], [74], [75], [76]. It is believed that although the
future of artificial intelligence has a tremendously beneficial
impact on the economy and daily lives of Americans still it
increases the issues related to privacy, security, unemploy-
ment, technological dependency, and authenticity within the
society. Therefore, it is essential to develop the preventive
control solution for mitigating or reducing such challenges.
13 WHAT ARE FUTURE PREDICTIONS FOR AI?
There is a great increase in the discussion about the impor-

tance of AI in the recent time leading to future discussions
about the existence of Artificial Intelligence in the world.
The idea of creating AI is aimed at making human life easier.
However, there is still a big debate about advantages and
disadvantages of AI in the whole [77], [78], [79], [80], [81],
[82], [83]. With the introduction and successful implementa-
tion of Artificial Intelligence (AI) solutions, many industries
in the world are and will benefit from increased profitability
and will still have good economic growth rates. In addi-
tion, artificial Intelligence opportunities will be aiming at
innovative, human centered approaches and measuring the
applicability of robotic technology to various industries and
companies in the entire world. Artificial Intelligence will
also revolutionize the way different companies in the world
grow and compete by representing new production ideas
that will derive profitability in businesses [77], [84], [85],
[86], [87]. So as to realize such opportunities, it will require
most of the companies in the world to become more active
in the development of various Artificial Intelligence strate-
gies such as placing human factors to central nucleus. In
addition, they will focus on developing various responsible
Artificial Intelligence machines having moral and ethical
values which will result into positive results and empow-
erment of people to do things that they are well versed
with. Construction of various Artificial Intelligence systems
will help the entire world to industrial sector to presuppose
the available symbolic structures such as, the ability to
reason and also knowledge existence. In addition, at the
time Artificial Intelligence acquires intelligence greater or
equal to that of human beings, there will be a concern
about social and political change .In furthermore, AI will
have all the advantages of colonize the world without the
help of human beings. In the near future, self-replicating AI
could be made where human colonies beyond the earth will
never have potentials to fight in the free space with critical

terms. The future Artificial Intelligence in various regions
in the world may be as a result of various investigation
technologies such as stellar travel, teleportation and others.
AUGUST 2015 8
14 WHICH LEVELS WILL IT REACH AND WHICH
ISSUES WILL BE SOLVED IN NEXT DECADES?
In this case, it is more likely that Artificial Intelligence
innovations will strongly emerge in conceivable future. In
next decades, the future of AI will be concerned on improv-
ing speech, voice, video conferencing and face recognition.
Further, Artificial Intelligence will aid for providing the
personal assistances and fully automate systems, which will
provide assistance in monitoring and surveillance, perform-
ing heavy workloads and many others [88], [89], [90], [91].
In addition, the future of Artificial Intelligence technology
such as robotics will be ensuring self-driven cars, delivery
robots and many others. With the great improvement in
computer versions and legged locomotion, the robots within
environments will become more practical hence helping
in agriculture and other service settings. In addition, the
robotics will improve on the service delivery hence reducing
domestic chores [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [88]. Further-
more, as Artificial Intelligence robotics is developing search
engines, there will be provision of personal assistance and
language gasps by use of mobile devices. The development
of search engines will lead to significant synthesize and
improvement of the quality of information. Furthermore,
Artificial Intelligence tool will improve the medical and bio-
logical system hence reducing the complexity and volume of
information challenges concerned human abilities. Artificial

intelligence will be used in the algorithm that materializes
various systems and programs. Artificial intelligence will
consist of specific hardware and software which intends to
imitate the way of human brain performance. In general, the
areas of Artificial Intelligence application will widely cover
both emerging and traditional technologies. Recent research
on AI considerably provide the potential effects on organi-
zation and industries, for example, the AI technology will
be aiming at improving the area of data science to almost
9.6%, business intelligence to 7.8%, patient and health care
to about 6.3%, speech recognition 5.3%, computer vision
5.6%, improve defense and aerospace system to about 5.3%
and natural language processing to about 5.1%. The role
of Artificial Intelligence tools on product manufacturing
operations will lead to toward employment, flexibility and
responsive chain of supply. In addition, AI roles will also
result to reliable forecasting demands, inventory accuracy
and optimization of schedules. The roles of AI will therefore
benefit quicker, smarter and environmental efficient process.
AI application in security and defense will majorly focus
on infrastructure protection. Currently Artificial Intelligence
facilitates the power plant, airport and economic sectors
which are quite hard to detect attacks, individuals anoma-
lous predication of disruption by man-made and natural
causes [92].
Within logistics area, the intervention of Artificial Intel-
ligence will contain efficient vehicles that will be in position
to route and make necessary adaptive delivery schedules. In
the financial service sector, Artificial Intelligence tools will
contain system failure and risk alerts aiming at decreasing
malicious attacks various financial systems; such as fraud,
market manipulation and reduction in market volatility
and trading costs. In the agriculture sector, the intelligent
solutions will provide intelligent production mechanisms

for processing, consumption, storage and distribution [92].
The Artificial solution will also provide given timely data
on crops that will involve use of proper materials such
as chemicals and fertilizers. Artificial Intelligence will also
be used in consumer goods and services so as to utilize
machine learning processes to match consumer demand
and enable them get best ;practices at reduced ;prices.
In communication sector, there will be improvement in
bandwidth and storage and Web translation languages.
Within the education sector, Artificial Intelligence solution
will intervene basic meaningful adaptive learning basing on
adaptive learning complemented by individual learning in
the classroom, accurate measurement of student’s sensitivity
and development of students. Easy manual techniques and
judgment will be supplemented by artificial intelligence.
The medical & health-care will provide various health eval-
uations to patients, decision support for prescribing drugs
and indication. Artificial intelligence will be used in large-
scale genome researches to determine new drugs, give nec-
essary support for finding new genetic problems, efficiency
and safety. The evidence based health and medicine will
help various physicians gain confidence which will require
supplementary support by patients [24]. In customer service
sector, AI systems will provide the virtual assistants which
will aim at increasing the reproduction and interpretation
abilities of human language with greater precision. For
example, chat bots redraw the landscape of the IT ecosys-
tem. They will replace themselves and applications, and
service personnel in companies, and even entire operating
systems. Chat-bot (Chat-bot) - this program will contain an
interlocutor, which will be designed to communicate and
help people. At the other end, there will be a complex
system based on several Artificial Intelligence technologies.
Chat bots, oriented to business tasks, will help to can take
up best flights, diet, fitness trainings, booking of a hotel,
make purchase, that is to say; they will represent a unique

sub-sector of assistance and advice. Personal assistants are a
kind of incarnation of chat bots, although more common
because the technology will be developed by the largest
IT companies [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [71]. Currently,
hundreds of millions of people interact with personal digital
assistants on platforms such as Google, Apple, Amazon,
Facebook and others. This technology with the help of
personal assistants and chat-bots will be more effective
which will make a great transition from the graphical user
interface (GUI) to the Conversational User Interface (CUI)
the key trend of the next decades. The predictive algorithms
and machine learning based on AI tools will provide sales
forecasts in specific markets and also effective provision
and optimization of inventory as they will help forecast in-
come and determine the necessary quantities of a particular
input. In addition, modern Artificial Intelligence systems
will control robotics to provide surveillance, security and
attacks without threatening the human life in Warfield. AI
applications in robotics will have diverse objectives related
to automation of military applications, industrial processes
and space exploration. The use of AI technology in medicine
and surgeries will significantly help in provision of safe
work as the machinery occupied will reduce the degree of
error that could occur in surgery, avoid a tragic outcome
[93]. The disaster recovery and management application of
AUGUST 2015 9
Fig. 5: Application areas of AI
Artificial Intelligence will considerably remark the provision
of remedial and control actions in the aftermath of man-
made and environmental disasters. Within disasters, the

considerable will optimize the mobile networks and allocate
the smart bandwidth [94]. Further, the satellite feed and
unmanned drones having image recognition and processing
feature will help in assessing damage of infrastructure and
provide predictions aimed at avoiding traffic congestion and
various structural stability by adopting the adaptive routing
system.
15 CONCLUSION
In this way, artificial intelligence can achieve great discov-
eries and advances for humanity due to its multiple possi-
bilities. Most artificial intelligence systems have the ability
to learn, which allows people to improve their performance
over time. The adoption of AI outside the technology sector
is at an early or experimental stage [?], [29], [34], [43], [44],
[44], [48], [49], [54], [55], [59], [60], [70], [72], [72], [95],
[95],
[96], [97], [98], [99], [100]. The evidence suggests that AI
can provide real value to our lives.AI bases its operation
on accessing huge amounts of information, processing it,
analyzing it and, according to its operation algorithms,
executing tasks to solve certain problems. Due to the new
computing architectures of the cloud, this technology be-
comes more affordable for any organization.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank...
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https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=4GxGCgAAQBAJ
https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=4GxGCgAAQBAJ1
Introduction2 Which of these and in what level can todayâ•Žs
artificial intelligence do?3 Where does the human intelligence
differ from AI?4 Why canâ•Žt we tell that todayâ•Žs AI is as
clever as human beings? 5 Give a comprehensive survey of what
can todayâ•Žs AI subfilelds do?6 Briefly explain technical
background as well?7 What is missing to todayâ•Žs AI still to
be called human level intelligence?8 Importance of Artificial
Intelligence9 Knowledge based towards understanding the
natural language10 Spatial frames of reference computation for
narrative text understanding11 What are open challenges?12
What are solution suggestions?13 What are future predictions
for AI?14 Which levels will it reach and which issues will be
solved in next decades?15 ConclusionReferences
MIRI
M A C H I N E I N T E L L I G E N C E
R E S E A R C H I N S T I T U T E
Advantages of Artificial Intelligences,
Uploads, and Digital Minds

Kaj Sotala
University of Helsinki, MIRI Research Associate
Abstract
I survey four categories of factors that might give a digital
mind, such as an upload or an
artificial general intelligence, an advantage over humans.
Hardware advantages include
greater serial speeds and greater parallel speeds. Self-
improvement advantages include
improvement of algorithms, design of new mental modules, and
modification of mo-
tivational system. Co-operative advantages include copyability,
perfect co-operation,
improved communication, and transfer of skills. Human
handicaps include compu-
tational limitations and faulty heuristics, human-centric biases,
and socially motivated
cognition. The shape of hardware growth curves, as well as the
ease of modifying minds,
are found to have a major impact on how quickly a digital mind
may take advantage of
these factors.
Sotala, Kaj. 2012. “Advantages of Artificial Intelligences,
Uploads, and Digital Minds.”
International Journal of Machine Consciousness 4 (1): 275–291.
doi:10.1142/S1793843012400161.
This version contains minor changes.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/S1793843012400161

Kaj Sotala
1. Introduction
A digital mind is a mind that runs on a computer. One type of
digital mind is a mind
upload, a hypothetical mind that was originally human, but that
has been moved into a
digital format and is being run as a software program on a
computer. Another type of
digital mind is that of an artificial general intelligence (AGI).
While uploads are based
on taking existing human minds and closely replicating them in
software, AGI may be
built on computer science principles and have little or no
resemblance to the human
psyche.
Either type of a digital mind might be created within a
timeframe of decades to cen-
turies. A recent roadmap charting the technological
requirements for creating uploads
suggests that they may be feasible by mid-century (Sandberg
and Bostrom 2008). So-
tala and Valpola (2012) note that research into prostheses
replicating the functions of the
hippocampus and the cerebellum are well under way, and
suggest that a feasible future
development would be “exocortices,” implants that can be
connected to human brains
and which gradually take over cortical brain function.
Interest in AGI research is also growing, with an increasing
number of special ses-
sions, workshops, and conferences devoted specifically to topics
such as AGI having been

held in the recent years (Baum, Goertzel, and Goertzel 2011). In
an expert assessment
survey conducted at the Artificial General Intelligence 2009
(AGI-09) conference, the
median estimates for when there would be a 10%, 50%, or a
90% chance of having an
AGI capable of passing the third grade were 2020, 2030 and
2075, respectively (Baum,
Goertzel, and Goertzel 2011). In an informal survey conducted
at the 2011 Winter
Intelligence Conference, the median estimates for when there
would be a 10%, 50%,
or a 90% chance of developing human-level machine
intelligence were 2028, 2050, and
2150 (Sandberg and Bostrom 2011).
There has been some previous work focused on examining the
consequences of cre-
ating digital intelligences. Focusing specifically on uploads,
researchers have examined
some of the economic consequences of the ability to copy minds
(Hanson 1994, 2008),
as well as the improved coordination ability stemming from
being able to copy, delete
and restore minds (Shulman 2010). Hanson (1998) and Kaas et
al. (2010) look more
generally at the economic effects of digital minds that can be
copied. Sotala and Valpola
(2012) explore the way that mind uploading may lead to “mind
coalescence,” the ability
to merge previously separate minds together.
Other researchers have argued that once we have AGI, it will
surpass the capabilities
of humans in many domains at drastic speed (see e.g. Vinge
[1993], Bostrom [2003],

Yudkowsky [2008a], and Chalmers [2010]). A “hard takeoff ”
(Yudkowsky 2001; Bugaj
and Goertzel 2007; Hall 2008; Vinge 2008) involves an AGI
reaching a point which
1
Minds
allows it to quickly accumulate various advantages and
influence, becoming a dominant
power before humans have the time to properly react. Should
existing human prepara-
tion be inadequate for such a drastic event, there could be
serious consequences, up to
and including human extinction (Bostrom 2002; Yudkowsky
2008a; Chalmers 2010).
This paper attempts to study the consequences of creating a
digital mind in terms of the
advantages that they may enjoy over humans.
1.1. Intelligence, Optimization Power, and Advantages
A great variety of definitions have been offered for the word
“intelligence.” A definition
which seems to summarize the essential content in most of them
is that intelligence
measures an agent’s ability to achieve goals in a wide range of
environments (Legg and
Hutter 2007). A mind has goals which it tries to achieve, and
more intelligent minds
are better at finding, inventing, and evaluating various ways of
achieving their goals. A

generalization of the concept of intelligence is the notion of
optimization power (Yud-
kowsky 2008a; Muehlhauser and Helm 2012), an agent’s general
ability to achieve its
goals. While intelligence is derived from what are generally
considered “mental” fac-
ulties, an agent’s optimization power is also a factor of things
such as its allies and re-
sources, as well as its ability to obtain more of them.
The crucial risk involved in the creation of digital minds is the
possibility of creating
minds whose goals are very different from humanity’s, and who
end up possessing more
optimization power than humanity does. Current human
preferences and desires seem
to be very complex and not well-understood: there is a strong
possibility that only a very
narrow subset of all possible goals will, if successful, lead to
consequences that would be
considered favorable by humans (Yudkowsky 2008a;
Muehlhauser and Helm 2012). If
digital intelligences are created and end up having (as a group)
more optimization power
than humanity does, and their goals are very different from
humanity’s goals, then the
consequences are likely to be considered very bad by most
humans.
This paper attempts to analyze the consequences of creating a
digital mind from the
perspective of the optimization power that they might
accumulate. Factors that may
lead to digital minds accumulating more optimization power
than humans are called
advantages; factors that may lead to digital minds accumulating

less optimization power
than humans are called disadvantages.
2. Hardware Advantages
A digital mind running on a computer system can upgrade the
system to utilize more
powerful hardware, while biological humans cannot drastically
upgrade their brains.
Suppose that there is some minimum hardware configuration
that provides a digital
2
Kaj Sotala
mind with roughly the same processing power and memory as a
human brain. Any
increase in hardware resources past this point is a hardware
advantage in favor of the
digital mind.
2.1. Superior Processing Power
The amount of processing power required to run a digital mind
is currently unknown.1
For uploads, Sandberg and Bostrom (2008) place 1018 to 1025
FLOPS as the most likely
amount required to run one in real time. They estimate that
current trends would make
these levels available for purchase at the cost of 1 million
dollars around 2019 to 2044.

An upload attempts to accurately emulate the entirety of human
brain function, with
all relevant details intact. In contrast, AGI designers are free to
use any working algo-
rithm, regardless of its biological plausibility. The human brain
is evolved to function in
a way suited to the constraints of biology, which may be very
different from what would
run efficiently on a computer. This allows for the possibility
that an AGI would require
much less processing power than an upload. Estimates of the
amount of processing
power required to run a mind range from modern-day computers
(Hall 2007), to 1011
FLOPS (Moravec 1998), and 1014 FLOPS (Bostrom 1997).
2.1.1. Superior Serial Power
Humans perceive the world on a particular characteristic time
scale. A mind being
executed on a system with greatly superior serial power could
run on a faster timescale
than we do. For instance, a mind with twice the serial power of
the human brain might
experience the equivalent of two seconds passing for each
second that we did, thinking
twice the amount of thoughts in the same time. This advantage
would be especially
noticeable in time-critical decision-making.
Even a small advantage would accumulate given enough time.
Over the course of a
year, a 10% difference in speed would give the faster mind more
than an extra month.
This would allow it to outcompete any mind with equal skills

and resources but without
the speed advantage.
In the “speed explosion” scenario (Solomonoff 1985;
Yudkowsky 1996; Chalmers
2010), digital researchers, running at an accelerated speed, work
to develop faster com-
puters. If the minds doing the research could take advantage of
the faster hardware
they produced, the time required to develop the next generation
of hardware could keep
1. Some sources provide their estimates in terms of MIPS
(Millions of Instructions Per Second), while
others use FLOPS (Floating-Point Operations per Second).
These are not directly comparable, and there
is no reliable way to convert between the two. For this paper,
we have used the rough estimate in Sandberg
and Bostrom (2008) that FLOPS grow as MIPS to the power of
0.8. The authors warn that this trend
may change, with the exponent possibly becoming larger than 1
3
Minds
getting shorter as the researchers would be getting more done in
the same time. This
could continue until some bottleneck, such as the time needed to
physically build the
computers, or fundamental barrier was reached.
2.1.2. Increased Parallel Power, Increased Memory

Recent advances in computing power have been increasingly
parallel instead of serial.
If the trend keeps up, a future computer may not be able to use
its superior processing
power to gain a direct increase in speed over the human brain, if
the tasks in question do
not parallelize well. Amdahl’s law states that if a fraction f of a
program’s performance
can be parallelized, then the speedup given by n processors
instead of one is 1/((1−f)+
f/n) (Amdahl 1967). A difference of several orders of magnitude
in computing power
might translate to a much more modest change in speed.
Gustafson (1988) notes that
in practice, it is the parallelizable part of a problem that grows
as data is added, and the
serial part remains constant. Even if increasing the number of
processors didn’t allow
a problem to be solved in less time, it can allow a larger
problem to be solved in better
detail.
As the human brain works in a massively parallel fashion, at
least some highly parallel
algorithms must be involved with general intelligence. Extra
parallel power might then
not allow for a direct improvement in speed, but it could
provide something like a greater
working memory equivalent. More trains of thought could be
pursued at once, and
more things could be taken into account when considering a
decision. Brain size seems
to correlate with intelligence within rats (Anderson 1993),
humans (McDaniel 2005),
and across species (Deaner et al. 2007), suggesting that

increased parallel power could
make a mind generally more intelligent.
3. Self-Improvement Advantages
A digital mind with access to its source code may directly
modify the way it thinks,
or create a modified version of itself. In order to do so, the
mind must understand its
own architecture well enough to know what modifications are
sensible. An AGI can
intentionally be built in a manner that is easy to understand and
modify, and may even
read its own design documents. Things may be harder for
uploads, especially if the
human brain is not yet fully understood by the time uploading
becomes possible.
Either type of mind could experiment with a large number of
possible interventions,
creating thousands or even millions of copies of itself to see
what kinds of effects various
modifications have. While some of the modifications could
produce unseen long-term
problems, each copy could be subjected to various intensive
tests over an extended period
of time to estimate the effects of the modifications. Copies with
harmful or neutral
4
Kaj Sotala
modifications could be deleted, making room for alternative

ones. (Shulman 2010).
Less experimental approaches might involve formal proofs of
the effects of the changes
to be made.
Recursive self-improvement (Yudkowsky 2008a; Chalmers
2010) is a situation in
which a mind modifies itself, which then makes it capable of
further improving itself.
For instance, an AGI might improve its pattern-recognition
capabilities, which would
then allow it to notice inefficiencies in itself. Correcting these
inefficiencies would free
up processing time and allow the AGI to notice more things that
could be improved.
To a limited extent, humans have been engaging in recursive
self-improvement as
the development of new technologies and forms of social
organization have made it
possible to organize better and develop yet more advanced
technologies. Yet the core
of the human brain has remained the same. If changes could be
found that sparked
off more changes, which kept sparking off more changes, the
result could be a greatly
improved form of intelligence (Yudkowsky 2008a).
3.1. Improving Algorithms
A digital mind could come across algorithms in itself that could
be be improved. For
instance, they could be made faster, to consume less memory, or
to rely on fewer assump-
tions. In the simplest case, an AGI implementing some standard
algorithm might come

across a paper detailing an improved implementation of it. Then
the old implementation
could be simply replaced with the new one. An upload with
emulated neurons might
alter itself so as to mimic the effects of drugs, neurosurgery,
genetic engineering and
other interventions (Shulman 2010).
In the past, improvements in algorithms have sometimes been
even more important
than improvements in hardware. The President’s Council of
Advisors on Science and
Technology (PCAST 2010) mentions that performance on a
benchmark production
planning model improved by a factor of 43 million between
1988 and 2003. Out of
the improvement, a factor of roughly 1,000 was due to better
hardware and a factor of
roughly 43,000 was due to improvements in algorithms. Also
mentioned is an algorith-
mic improvement of roughly 30,000 for mixed integer
programming between 1991 and
2008.
3.2. Designing New Mental Modules
A mental module, in the sense of functional specialization
(Cosmides and Tooby 1994;
Barrett and Kurzban 2006), is a part of a mind that specializes
in processing a certain
kind of information. Specialized modules are much more
effective than general-purpose
ones, for the number of possible solutions to a problem in the
general case is infinite.
Research in a variety of fields, including artificial intelligence,
developmental psychol-

5
Minds
ogy, linguistics, perception and semantics has shown that a
system must be predisposed
to processing information within the domain in the right way or
it will be lost in the sea
of possibilities (Tooby and Cosmides 1992). Many problems
within computer science
are intractable in the general case, but can be efficiently solved
by algorithms customized
for specific special cases with useful properties that are not
present in general (Cormen
et al. 2009). Correspondingly, many specialized modules have
been proposed for hu-
mans, including modules for cheater-detection, disgust, face
recognition, fear, intuitive
mechanics, jealousy, kin detection, language, number, spatial
orientation, and theory of
mind (Barrett and Kurzban 2006).
Specialization leads to efficiency: to the extent that regularities
appear in a problem,
an efficient solution to the problem will exploit those
regularities (Kurzban 2010). A
mind capable of modifying itself and designing new modules
customized for specific
tasks might eventually outperform biological minds in any
domain, even presuming no
hardware advantages. In particular, any improvements in a
module specialized for cre-

ating new modules would have a disproportionate effect.
It is important to understand what specialization means in this
context, for several
competing interpretations exist. For instance, Bolhuis et al.
(2011) argue against func-
tional specialization in nature by citing examples of “domain-
general learning rules” in
animals. On the other hand, Barrett and Kurzban (2006) argue
that even seemingly
domain-general rules, such as the modus ponens rule of formal
logic, operate in a re-
stricted domain: representations in the form of if-then
statements. This paper uses Bar-
rett and Kurzban’s broader interpretation. Thus, in defining the
domain of a module,
what matters is not the content of the domain, but the formal
properties of the pro-
cessed information and the computational operations performed
on the information.
Positing functional modules in humans also does not imply
genetic determination, nor
that the modules could necessarily be localized to a specific
part of the brain (Barrett
and Kurzban 2006).
A special case of a new mental module is the design of a new
sensory modality, such
as that of vision or hearing. Yudkowsky (2007) discusses the
notion of new modalities,
and considers the detection and identification of invariants to be
one of the defining
features of a modality. In vision, changes in lighting conditions
may entirely change the
wavelength of light that is reflected off a blue object, but it is
still perceived as blue. The

sensory modality of vision is then concerned with, among other
things, extracting the
invariant features that allow an object to be recognized as being
of a specific color even
under varying lighting.
Brooks (1987) mentions invisibility as an essential difficulty in
software engineering.
Software cannot be visualized in the same way physical
products can be, and any visual-
ization can only cover a small part of the software product.
Yudkowsky (2007) suggests
6
Kaj Sotala
a codic cortex designed to model code the same way that the
human visual cortex is
evolved to model the world around us. Whereas the designer of
a visual cortex might
ask “what features need to be extracted to perceive both an
object illuminated by yellow
light and an object illuminated by red light as ‘the color blue’?”
the designer of a codic
cortex might ask “what features need to be extracted to perceive
the recursive algorithm
for the Fibonacci sequence and the iterative algorithm for the
Fibonacci sequence as
‘the same piece of code’?” Speculatively, new sensory
modalities could be designed for
various domains for which existing human modalities are not
optimally suited.

3.3. Modifiable Motivation Systems
Humans frequently suffer from problems such as
procrastination, boredom, mental fa-
tigue, and burnout. A mind which did not become bored or tired
with its work would
have a clear advantage over humans. Shulman (2010) notes two
ways by which uploads
could overcome these problems. Uploads could be copied while
they were in a rested
and motivated state. When they began to tire, they could be
deleted and replaced with
the “snapshot” taken while they were still rested. Alternatively,
their brain state could
be edited so as to eliminate the neural effects of boredom and
fatigue. An AGI might
not need to have boredom built into it in the first place.
The ability for a mind to modify its own motivational systems
also has its own risks.
Wireheading (Yudkowsky 2001; Omohundro 2008) is a
phenomenon where a mind
self-modifies to make it seem like it is achieving its goals, even
though it is not. For
instance, an upload might try to eliminate its stress about its
friends dying by creating a
delusion about them always being alive. Once a mind has
wireheaded, it may no longer
want to fix its broken state.
Even if wireheading-related problems were avoided, a mind
altering its own moti-
vations still risks an outcome where its ability to pursue its
original goals is worsened.
To avoid such problems, a mind might attempt to formally
prove that proposed changes

do not alter its current goals (Yudkowsky 2008a), or it may
produce modified copies of
itself and subject the copies to an intensive testing regimen
(Shulman 2010).
4. Co-operative Advantages
4.1. Copyability
A human child takes nine months to gestate, after which close
to two or even three
decades are typically needed before it can do productive work,
depending on the type
of work. Raising a child is expensive, costing on average
between 216,000 and 252,000
dollars over 18 years in the United States (Lino 2010). In
contrast, a digital mind can be
copied very quickly and doing so has no cost other than access
to the hardware required
7
Minds
to run it. Hanson (1994, 2008) estimates that copyable workers
could rapidly come
to dominate major portions of the economy, as the mind willing
to work for the lowest
wage could be copied until there was no more demand for
workers of that type. Although
such workers would be individually poor, they would control a
large amount of wealth
as a group. Whether they could take advantage of it would

depend on their ability to
co-operate.
For human populations, the maximum size of the population
depends primarily on
the availability of resources such as food and medicine. For
populations of digital minds,
the maximum size of the population depends primarily on the
amount of hardware avail-
able. A digital mind could obtain more hardware resources by
legitimately buying them,
or by employing illegal means such as hacking and malware.
Modern-day botnets are networks of computers that have been
compromised by out-
side attackers and are used for illegitimate purposes. Estimates
of their size range from
one study saying the effective sizes of botnets rarely exceed a
few thousand bots, to a
study saying that botnet sizes can reach 350,000 members
(Rajab et al. 2007). Cur-
rently, the distributed computing project [email protected], with
290,000 active clients,
can reach speeds in the 1015 FLOPS range ([email protected]
2012). A relatively conser-
vative estimate that presumed a digital mind couldn’t hack into
more computers than
the best malware practitioners of today, that a personal
computer would have a hundred
times the computing power of today, and that the mind took
1013 FLOPS to run, would
suggest that a single mind could spawn 12,000 copies of itself.
Resorting to illegal means may not be necessary if digital minds
are allowed to own
property, or at least earn money. Uploads might be legally

considered the same person
as before the upload. AGIs owned by a company or private
individual can accumulate
property for their owner, or they may try to set up a front
company to act through.
Creating new copies of a mind is profitable until the costs of
maintaining a new copy
exceed the profits that copy is capable of generating, so copies
might be created until the
wage a copy can earn falls to the level of maintaining the
hardware (Hanson 1994, 2008).
Hanson (2008) argues that copying would drive wages down to
machine-subsistence
levels, leading to “insectlike urban densities, with many billions
[of digital minds] living
in the volume of a current skyscraper, paying astronomical rents
that would exclude most
humans.”
For uploads, who might not be capable of co-operating with
each other any better
than current-day humans do, this might be a disadvantage rather
than an advantage.
But if they could, or if an AGI spawned many copies of itself,
then the group could pool
their resources and together control a large fraction of the
wealth in the world.
8
Kaj Sotala
4.2. Perfect Co-operation

Human capability for co-operation is limited by the fact that
humans have their own
interests in addition to those of the group. Olson (1965) showed
that it is difficult for
large groups of rational, selfish agents to effectively co-operate
even to achieve common
goals, if those goals can be characterized as obtaining a public
good for the group. Public
goods are those that, once obtained, benefit everyone and
cannot effectively be denied to
anyone. Because an individual’s contribution has a negligible
effect on the achievement
of the good, all group members have an incentive to free ride on
the effort.
One implication is that smaller groups often have an advantage
over larger ones.
For one, co-operation is easier to enforce in a smaller group.
Additionally, it may be
beneficial for, e.g., a large company to lobby for laws
benefiting the whole industry,
since it is large enough to benefit from the laws even if it had to
shoulder almost all of
the costs of lobbying itself. Smaller companies forgo such
lobbying and free ride on the
large company’s investment. This leads to lobbying investment
that is suboptimal for the
industry as a whole (Olson 1965; Mueller 2003). Self-interest is
a natural consequence
of evolution, as it increases the odds that an organism survives
long enough to breed.
Drives such as self-preservation are also natural instrumental
values for any intelligent
agent, for only entities that continue to exist can work towards
their goals (Omohundro
2008).

However, minds might be constructed to lack any self-interest,
particularly if mul-
tiple copies of the same mind existed and the destruction of one
would not seriously
threaten the overall purpose. Such entities’ minds could be
identical to one another,
share the same goal system, and co-operate perfectly with one
another with no costs
from defection or from systems for enforcing co-operation.
In the case of uploads, this could happen through copying an
upload in suitable ways,
creating a “superorganism.” An upload that has been copied
may hold the view that be-
ing deleted is an acceptable cost to pay, for as long as other
copies of it survive. Uploads
holding this view would then be ready to make large sacrifices
for the rest of the su-
perorganism, and might employ various psychological
techniques to reinforce this bond
(Shulman 2010). Minds wishing to work for a common goal
might also choose to con-
nect their brains together, more or less coalescing together into
a single mind (Sotala and
Valpola 2012). A lighter form of mind coalescence might also
be used to strengthen the
unity of a superorganism.
4.3. Superior Communication
Misunderstandings are notoriously common among humans.
AGI could potentially
need to spend much less effort on communication. Language can
be thought of as sym-
bols that map to different individual’s conceptual spaces, with

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