The development of juvenile justice systems in Eastern European neighbourhood policy countries

OPY
NCEC
ADVA
THE DEVELOPMENT OF JUVENILE JUSTICE
SYSTEMS IN EASTERN EUROPEAN
NEIGHBOURHOOD POLICY COUNTRIES
REFORM ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES
IN ARMENIA, AZERBAIJAN,
GEORGIA, MOLDOVA AND UKRAINE

This report is based on an analysis of assessments commissioned
by the UNICEF Regional Office for CEE/CIS in Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine in 2008 and 2009. It was drafted by
Mr. Daniel O’Donnell, independent consultant, in collaboration with
and under the supervision of Séverine Jacomy-Vité, Child Protection
Specialist and Jean-Claude Legrand, Child Protection Regional Advisor,
UNICEF Regional Office for CEE/CIS.
Mr. O’Donnell, an American-Irish national, is a lawyer with 30 years
experience in human rights. He studied law at the State University of
New York at Buffalo and was admitted to the Bar of New York in 1980.
Mr. O’Donnell began his career in 1978 as a prisoners’ rights specialist
with a Federal Court in the United States. After this, he worked for
several non-governmental organizations, including the International
Commission of Jurists, the Inter-American Institute for Human Rights
and Defence for Children International. Since 1992 he has worked as
a consultant for NGOs and several United Nations organizations, on
assignments covering investigation, research and writing, training and
programme design and evaluation. Mr. O’Donnell has been collaborating
with UNICEF in the drafting of numerous studies and evaluations in the
field of juvenile justice over the last three years.

© The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), June 2010

Front cover photos:
UNICEF Armenia/2006/Onnik Krikorian
UNICEF/Geo-2010/Amruvelashvili
UNICEF Moldova/2010/Paul Hodorogea
UNICEF Albania/2008/Robert Few

THE DEVELOPMENT
OF JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEMS
IN EASTERN EUROPEAN
NEIGHBOURHOOD POLICY COUNTRIES

REFORM ACHIEVEMENTS
AND CHALLENGES IN ARMENIA,
AZERBAIJAN, GEORGIA, MOLDOVA
AND UKRAINE

UNICEF Regional Office for Central
and Eastern Europe/Commonwealth of Independent States

June 2010

IN ARMENIA, AZERBAIJAN, GEORGIA, MOLDOVA AND UKDRAINE

CONTENTS
FOREWORD ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Box: Key UNICEF strategies............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 12

INTRODUCTION: WHY THESE ASSESSMENTS? ......................................................................................................................................................... 13

SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 15

CONTEXT .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 16

PART I. FOUNDATIONAL ISSUES: POLICY, LAW REFORM,
TRAINING, COORDINATION, DATA AND RESEARCH............................................................................................................................................. 20

1..Juvenile.justice.policy ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2..Law.reform ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
3..Intersectoral.coordination ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
4..Training.and.capacity-building ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 25
5..Data.management.and.research ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

PART II. DEMOCRACY AND RULE OF LAW .......................................................................................................................................................................... 31

1..The.impact.of.ombudspersons.and.other.accountability.mechanisms ........................................................................ 31
2..The.soft.but.essential.role.of.civil.society ........................................................................................................................................................... 32
3..The.gradual.specialization.of.judges.and.courts ......................................................................................................................................... 35
4..The.success.of.legal.aid ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 36
5..The.remaining.challenge.of.secondary.prevention.................................................................................................................................. 37

PART III. HUMAN RIGHTS AND FUNDAMENTAL FREEDOMS .................................................................................................................... 39

1..Child.rights.legislation .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
2..Grave.concerns.about.interrogation.and.detention ................................................................................................................................ 40
3..Good.and.bad.news.about.correctional.facilities ....................................................................................................................................... 47

PART IV. CORE JUVENILE JUSTICE APPROACHES: PARAMETERS OF JUVENILE JUSTICE,
DIVERSION, SENTENCES AND RETURN TO THE COMMUNITY ............................................................................................................. 52

1..The.parameters.of.juvenile.justice ................................................................................................................................................................................. 52
2..Diversion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
3..Alternative.sentences ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
4..Duration.of.custodial.sentences ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 59
5..Conditional.early.release.(parole) ................................................................................................................................................................................... 61

PART V. THREE LEGACIES OF THE SOVIET ERA .......................................................................................................................................................... 63

1..Juvenile.police ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
2..‘Reception.and.distribution.centres’ ............................................................................................................................................................................ 65
3..‘Special.schools’ ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 66

CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 69

ANNEX 1. Schematic overview of the juvenile justice systems in the five countries .............................................. 72

ANNEX 2. Trends in different forms of detention ..................................................................................................................................................... 76

ANNEX 3. UNICEF Regional Office for CEE/CIS publications on juvenile justice .......................................................... 77

ANNEX 4. CD Rom containing the individual country assessments

3

THE DEVELOPMENT OF JUVENILE JUSTICE SYSTEMS
IN EASTERN EUROPEAN NEIGHBOURHOOD POLICY COUNTRIES

Foreword
Foreword.to.come

4


Executive Summary
The.historic.social,.political.and.economic.transformations.that.coincided.in.Eastern.Europe.and.the.
Soviet.Union.with.the.adoption.of.the.Convention.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child.in.1989.led.to.reforms.of.
legislation,.law.enforcement,.the.administration.of.justice.and.corrections.on.an.unprecedented.scale..
This.created.unique.opportunities.to.advance.the.human.rights.and.child.rights.agenda..During.the.
1990s,.juvenile.justice.was.not.a.priority.for.countries.in.the.region,.but.most.are.now.engaged.in.the.
process.of.developing.juvenile.justice.systems.compatible.with.international.standards..Experiences.
with. de-institutionalization. and. growing. expertise. in. child. rights. have. enabled. UNICEF. to. make. a.
special.contribution.to.these.reforms,.with.the.support.of.European.and.other.international.actors..

The. present. overview. summarizes. the. results. of. assessments. carried. out. in. Armenia,. Azerbaijan,.
Georgia,.Moldova.and.Ukraine.in.2008–2009.in.order.to.inform.future.strategies.and.decision-making.
at.country.level,.and.share.experiences.with.European.and.international.agencies,.which.cooperate.
in.supporting.the.development.of.juvenile.justice..

Foundational issues
The.basic.parameters.of.juvenile.justice.in.these.countries.meet.the.relevant.international.standards:.
children.under.age.14.may.not.be.prosecuted.and.children.under.age.18.may.only.be.prosecuted.as.
juveniles,.not.as.adults..Children.aged.14–15.years.may.only.be.charged.for.more.serious.offences..
However,. children. aged. 11–14. years. who. lack. ‘criminal. responsibility’. but. are. alleged. to. have. been.
involved.in.criminal.conduct.may.still.be.sent.to.closed.educational.institutions..

Only. Georgia. has. a. specific. strategy. for. the. development. of. juvenile. justice,. adopted. in. 2009.. In.
Ukraine,. a. presidential. decree. calling. for. the. creation. of. a. juvenile. justice. system. was. issued.
in. 2008,. but. the. action. plan. it. called. for. has. not. been. prepared.1. In. Armenia,. the. National. Plan. of.
Action. for. the. Protection. of. the. Rights. of. the. Child. only. calls. for. the. creation. of. a. juvenile. justice.
system,.and.the.National.Programme.for.the.Prevention.of.Crime.contains.few.provisions.concerning.
children..In.Moldova,.‘streamlining.the.system.of.justice.for.minors’.is.an.element.of.the.Strategy.for.
Strengthening.the.Judicial.System.approved.in.2007,.as.part.of.the.government’s.commitments.to.the.
European. Union. 2. Azerbaijan. has. no. national. plan. or. strategy. so. far.. Broader. strategies. containing.
some.elements.of.juvenile.justice.have.had.a.positive.though.limited.impact,.but.in.some.cases.they.
have.slowed.or.interfered.with.the.development.of.juvenile.justice. 3.

None.of.the.five.countries.covered.by.this.report.have.a.framework.law.on.juvenile.justice:.the.legal.
framework. for. juvenile. justice. must. still. be. construed. from. provisions. of. the. Criminal. Code,. the.
Code.of.Criminal.Procedure.and.legislation.on.prisons,.probation,.administration.offences.and.child.
protection..Most.of.this.legislation.has.been.extensively.rewritten.during.the.last.two.decades,.and.
is.now.more.compatible.with.human.rights.and.child.rights..Experts.in.juvenile.justice.usually.have.
a.minor.role.in.the.drafting.of.such.laws,.and.invariably.some.provisions.applicable.to.both.children.
and.adults.do.not.adequately.protect.the.rights.of.children..

1
. Presidential.Decree.No..411/2008.of.5.May.2008.on.Measures.to.Ensure.Protection.of.Rights.and.Legal.Interests.of.Children..
Paragraph.8(2).mandated.the.Ministry.of.Justice.to.“during.the.first.half.of.2008.develop.a.draft.of.the.National.Programme.
of.Juvenile.Justice.Development.”
2
. Judiciary.System.Strengthening.Strategy,.adopted.by.the.Parliament.of.Moldova.in.Decision.No..174-XVI.of.19.July.2007.
3
. In.Georgia,.for.example,.a.Criminal.Justice.Reform.Strategy.prepared.with.the.support.of.the.European.Union.and.adopted.
in.2005.contained.only.one.brief.mention.of.juveniles,.indicating.that.juvenile.prisoners.shall.enjoy.the.rights.recognized.
by.international.human.rights.law..The.action.plan.adopted.the.following.year.included.one.objective.that.was.opposed.by.
UNICEF.and.the.Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child..The.failure.to.take.the.special.needs.of.children.into.account.in.the.
Criminal.Justice.Reform.Strategy.was.not.only.a.lost.opportunity,.but.led.to.a.situation.where.advocacy.for.the.rights.of.
juveniles.required.introducing.modifications.into.the.larger.reform.process.

5


The. effective. functioning. of. a. juvenile. justice. system. requires. coordination. of. the. activities. of.
many. agencies. and. institutions,. including. the. police,. prosecutors,. the. courts,. probation. services,.
the. correctional. system,. and. others.. Cooperation. between. some. of. them. may. be. spontaneous,. but.
good.cooperation.across.the.entire.system.cannot.be.ensured.without.a.coordination.mechanism..All.
five.countries.have.established.bodies.of.this.kind,.but.the.effectiveness.of.most.of.them.has.been.
limited.. Effectiveness. would. require. an. increased. sense. of. ownership. amongst. the. participating.
national. agencies. and. institutions,. and. enhanced. political. commitment. to. juvenile. justice. and. the.
role.of.the.body.in.question.

In. all. of. these. countries,. a. considerable. amount. of. training. was. provided. to. justice. professionals.
potentially.dealing.with.children,.initially.mostly.through.ad hoc.in-service.training..Progress.is.now.
being.made.in.the.incorporation.of.training.in.child.rights.and.juvenile.justice.into.the.curricula.of.the.
institutions.that.train.all.judges,.prosecutors,.police.and.correctional.officers..This.process.is.more.
advanced.in.some.countries.than.others..The.impact.of.training.is.rarely.evaluated.objectively..

To. be. effective,. policies,. legislation. and. plans. regarding. juvenile. offending. and. juvenile. justice. must.
be.based.on.relevant.and.accurate.information..A.decade.ago,.data.collection.and.analysis.were.very.
poor.. Some. progress. has. been. achieved,. but. much. more. is. needed.. In. Armenia,. various. agencies.
compile. relevant. data,. but. none. of. these. data. are. published. on. a. regular. basis.. In. Georgia,. only. the.
Supreme. Court. regularly. publishes. data,. which. are. limited. to. convicted. offenders,. and. data. released.
by.the.relevant.ministries.on.an.ad hoc.basis.are.very.contradictory..In.Moldova,.two.ministries.and.the.
courts.publish.statistics,.but.plans.to.establish.a.centralized.database.failed.due.to.reluctance.to.share.
data..In.Ukraine,.the.State.Statistics.Committee.publishes.every.three.years.a.report.on.juvenile.justice.
containing.data.provided.by.the.courts,.the.prosecutor.and.relevant.ministries.4..The.best.set.of.regularly.
released.data.is.that.contained.in.Crimes and Offence in Azerbaijan, published.by.the.State.Statistical.
Committee.since.2004..Still,.in.all.of.these.countries,.there.are.important.gaps.in.the.data.available..The.
development. of. additional. indicators,. tools. and. integrated. systems. for. data. collection. and. analysis. is.
urgently.needed.to.inform.decisions.and.measure.the.impact.of.new.policies,.laws.and.programmes..

In. Armenia,. Azerbaijan. and. Ukraine,. field. studies. based. in. part. on. the. views. and. experiences.
of. children. in. contact. with. the. juvenile. justice. system. have. been. carried. out. in. recent. years.. The.
information.they.contain,.about.positive.and.negative.experiences,.is.essential.for.the.development.
of. juvenile. justice. systems.. These. studies. clearly. represent. a. ‘best. practice’. that. needs. to. be.
consolidated.and.further.developed.and.expanded..

Democracy and rule of law
Many. safeguards. have. been. introduced. to. protect. the. rights. of. juvenile. suspects. in. police. custody.
and.accused.juveniles.in.pretrial.detention..They.have.helped.reduce.abuse,.but.have.not.eradicated.
it.. Progress. has. been. greater. in. detention. and. correctional. facilities.. Abuse. by. the. police. has. been.
more. difficult. to. deter.. One. reason. is. that,. in. three. of. the. five. countries,. police. may. hold. suspects.
without. a. court. order. for. more. than. 24. hours.. Good. practices. include. legislation. (in. Armenia,.
Georgia,. Moldova). requiring. the. presence. of. a. defence. attorney. during. interrogation,. as. well. as.
the. inadmissibility. of. confession. as. proof. during. trial.. However,. implementation. of. new. legislation.
remains.a.challenge.and.such.safeguards,.even.if.put.into.practice,.do.not.suffice.to.eliminate.abuse.
if.there.is.tolerance.and.impunity.

Human.rights.ombudspersons.exist.in.all.five.countries..In.Azerbaijan,.Georgia,.Moldova.and.Ukraine.
they.reportedly.visit.correctional.and.detention.facilities.regularly,.and.their.activities.have.helped.reduce.
violence.against.juvenile.suspects,.detainees.and.prisoners..In.Armenia,.two.independent.community-
based. bodies,. having. a. statutory. mandate. to. monitor. the. treatment. of. persons. deprived. of. liberty,.

4
. A.semi-annual.report.on.the.economy.also.includes.a.section.on.crime.

6


have.been.particularly.effective.in.documenting.abuse.of.prisoners,.including.juveniles.5..However,.the.
effectiveness.of.such.bodies.depends.on.the.strong.follow-up.action.by.prosecutors.and.the.heads.of.
the.law.enforcement.bodies.on.cases.referred.to.them.and,.ultimately,.on.a.strong.political.commitment.
at.the.highest.level.to.ensure.accountability..This.appears.to.be.still.lacking.in.most.countries.

Civil. society. organizations. play. an. important. role. in. juvenile. justice. in. all. five. countries,. especially.
in. documenting. the. need. for. change,. delivering. training. and. providing. services. to. juveniles. in.
correctional.facilities. 6..Best.practices.include:.studies.on.juvenile.justice.and.development.of.police.
curriculum.by.the.NGO.Alliance.for.Children’s.Rights.in.Azerbaijan;.policy.development.support.by.
the.Institute.for.Penal.Reform.in.Moldova;.research.by.the.Centre.of.Social.Expertise.and.development.
of. mediation. by. the. NGO. Centre. for. Common. Ground. in. Ukraine;. activities. carried. out. in. juvenile.
correctional. facilities. by. the. NGOs. Empathy. in. Georgia. and. Trtu. in. Armenia;. the. transformation. by.
the.Fund.for.Armenian.Relief.of.the.short-term,.multipurpose.residential.facility.for.children.formerly.
operated. by. the. police,. and. the. Community. Justice. Centres. set. up. by. Project. Harmony. Armenia. to.
provide. assistance. to. offenders. and. children. at. risk.. In. Armenia,. Azerbaijan,. Georgia. and. Ukraine,.
NGOs.organize.or.participate.in.activities.within.juvenile.correctional.facilities,.which.also.give.them.
an.opportunity.to.informally.monitor.conditions.and.treatment..

None.of.the.five.countries.have.specialized.juvenile.courts,.but.most.have.either.judges.designated.
specifically.to.handle.cases.involving.accused.juveniles.(Moldova,.Ukraine).or.require.judges.hearing.
such. cases. to. have. special. training. (Georgia).. In. Armenia,. one. judge. from. each. court. was. trained,.
although. there. is. no. requirement. that. each. court. has. a. specially. trained. or. designed. judge. for.
juveniles..Some.judges.also.have.participated.in.training.activities.in.juvenile.justice.in.Azerbaijan,.but.
there.are.no.judges.especially.designated.to.handle.juvenile.cases..This.is.a.step.in.the.right.direction,.
although.in.each.of.the.five.countries.the.juvenile.caseload.is.large.enough.to.warrant.the.creation.of.
at.least.one.specialized.court.where.the.incidence.of.serious.and.repeat.offending.is.highest.

None.of.these.countries.had.legal.aid.programmes.for.juvenile.offenders.until.recently..In.the.past,.the.
right.to.legal.assistance.of.defendants.unable.to.pay.for.the.services.of.defence.counsel.was.met.by.
assigned.attorneys,.usually.poorly.remunerated,.who.provided.poor.quality.representation..This.has.
begun.to.change..Publicly.funded.legal.aid.programmes.have.been.established.in.Armenia,.Georgia.
and. Moldova.. Each. provides. free. legal. services. to. juvenile. suspects. and. accused. juveniles. and,. in.
Moldova,.the.service.has.recently.hired.lawyers.specialized.in.juvenile.justice..In.Azerbaijan,.a.small.
Children’s.Rights.Legal.Clinic.and,.in.Ukraine,.two.large.legal.aid.programmes.have.been.established.
on.a.pilot.basis..The.creation.of.such.programmes.has.led.to.a.marked.improvement.in.the.quality.of.
services.provided.to.juveniles,.and.needs.to.be.consolidated..The.fact.that.the.governments.of.three.
countries.have.decided.to.fund.such.programmes.on.the.national.level.is.an.essential.step.forward.

What. was. and. still. is. largely. missing. are. community-based,. non-residential. programmes. for.
children. and. adolescents. at. higher. risk. of. offending,. which. would. offer. individual. assessments. and.
comprehensive. multidisciplinary. activities,. including. psychosocial. support,. remedial. education,.
life. skills. training,. and. individual. and. family. counselling.. A. few. pilot. services. of. this. kind. have. been.
established,.but.to.date.most.of.them.operate.as.diversion.or.alternative.sentences.for.adolescents.who.
have.already.begun.to.get.involved.in.minor.offending..The.Community.Justice.Centres.in.Armenia.are.
a.positive.exception.as.they.have.the.purposes.and.functions.of.both.prevention.and.diversion..

5
. The.functions.and.powers.of.the.Group.of.Public.Observers.Conducting.Public.Monitoring.of.Penitentiary.Institutions.and.
Bodies.of.the.Ministry.of.Justice.of.the.Republic.of.Armenia.and.the.Group.of.Public.Observers.at.the.Detention.Facilities.of.
the.Police.System.are.recognized.by.law..Their.mandate.includes.physical.abuse.of.individuals.and.conditions.of.detention..
Both.prepare.annual.reports,.‘current’.reports.and,.when.an.urgent.case.arises,.‘ad hoc ’.reports.
6
. NGOs.generally.do.not.play.a.similar.role.in.pretrial.detention.facilities.in.these.countries,.which.is.unfortunate,.in.
particular.when.detention.is.for.an.extended.period.

7


Human rights and fundamental freedoms
The.Convention.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child.forms.part.of.the.national.legal.order.in.all.five.countries,.
and.Armenia,.Azerbaijan.and.Moldova.have.adopted.laws.on.the.rights.of.children..These.laws.contain.
provisions.concerning.juvenile.justice,.thus.helping.to.make.public.opinion,.and.children.themselves,.
aware.of.the.essential.rights.and.principles.that.must.be.respected.with.regard.to.children.at.risk.and.
juvenile.offenders.

Some. important. measures. have. been. taken. in. order. to. prevent. and. deter. torture. and. ill-treatment..
It.appears.that.juveniles.are.no.longer.subject.to.physical.abuse.in.the.prison.and.pretrial.detention.
centres. operated. by. the. ministry. of. justice.. However,. information. from. various. sources. indicates.
that.physical.abuse.and.even.torture.are.still.inflicted.on.suspects,.including.juveniles,.by.the.police.
before.the.suspects.are.placed.in.investigative.custody.facilities.

In. general,. physical. conditions. of. detention. or. imprisonment,. even. when. somewhat. substandard,.
are.not.so.bad.as.to.be.considered.cruel,.inhuman.or.degrading.treatment..However,.the.legislation.
and.regulations.of.all.five.countries.allow.solitary.confinement.to.be.used.as.a.disciplinary.measure.
for.juveniles,.which.the.United.Nations.Rules.for.the.Protection.of.Juveniles.Deprived.of.their.Liberty.
classifies.as.cruel,.inhuman.and.degrading.7

Important. challenges. also. persist. regarding. detention. before. and. during. legal. proceedings.. Despite.
the. measures. taken. in. some. countries,. such. as. barring. the. detention. of. juveniles. accused. of. minor.
offences.or.limiting.the.validity.of.detention.orders.to.a.few.months,.the.number.of.accused.juveniles.in.
detention.remains.relatively.high,.and.prolonged.detention.remains.a.problem..In.Georgia,.for.example,.
one. third. of. all. juveniles. prosecuted. are. detained. before. trial. and,. in. Moldova,. at. the. time. of. the.
UNICEF.assessment.mission.the.number.of.detained.juveniles.was.twice.the.number.of.those.serving.
sentences,.although.the.use.of.detention.on.remand.has.decreased..The.six-month.limit.between.the.
filing.of.charges.and.the.final.decision,.recommended.by.the.Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child,.is.
not.rigorously.applied.in.any.of.these.countries..Efforts.have.been.made.to.improve.access.to.education.
during. detention. but,. in. most. of. these. countries,. if. not. all,. conditions. in. juvenile. detention. facilities.
are.harsher.than.in.juvenile.correctional.facilities..Prolonged.confinement.in.cells.and.lack.of.physical.
exercise. are. common. problems.. For. instance,. in. the. main. detention. centre. in. Chisinau. juveniles. are.
detained.in.conditions.that.are.unsanitary.and.inhuman,.and.injuries.resulting.from.fights.are.a.regular.
occurrence..The.lack.of.full.separation.from.adults.is.another.concern..In.Azerbaijan.and.Ukraine,.for.
example,.adult.detainees.are.sometimes.placed.in.the.juvenile.section.to.help.maintain.discipline..

At. the. same. time,. some. of. the. main. achievements. of. the. last. decade. are. significant. decreases. in.
the.percentage.of.convicted.juveniles.receiving.custodial.sentences.and.in.the.number.of.juveniles.
serving. sentences. in. correctional. facilities.. The. number. of. juvenile. prisoners. has. fallen. by. 50. per.
cent.to.80.per.cent.in.all.five.countries.except.Georgia,.where.a.‘zero.tolerance’.policy.towards.crime.
announced.in.2005.led.to.an.increase..

Policies,. programmes. and. material. conditions. in. juvenile. correctional. facilities. have. improved..
Prisoners.have.better.access.to.education,.cultural.activities.and.religious.services..Staff.has.received.
training. in. child. rights,. and. psychologists. and. social. workers. are. being. added. to. staff.. Corporal.
punishment. as. a. disciplinary. measure. is. no. longer. legal.. Acceptance. of. the. presence. of. NGOs. has.
increased.transparency.and.enriched.the.range.and.quality.of.activities.available..

Still,. insofar. as. correctional. facilities. are. concerned,. one. of. the. main. challenges. is. the. absence. of.
coherent,. clearly. defined. policies. and. programmes. for. the. rehabilitation. of. juvenile. offenders. and.

7
. United.Nations.Rules.for.the.Protection.of.Juveniles.Deprived.of.their.Liberty.(Havana.Rules),.Rule.67..(Rule.95.3.
of.the.European.Rules.for.juvenile.offenders.subject.to.sanctions.or.measures.also.bans.the.use.of.solitary.confinement..
of.juvenile.prisoners.)

8


the.prevention.of.re-offending..The.considerable.international.assistance.that.has.been.provided.has.
focused.on.improving.infrastructure.and.ensuring.humane.treatment,.but.not.on.how.such.facilities.
should.approach.their.essential.function..Psychological.evaluations.are.rudimentary.or.non-existent,.
individual.plans.are.not.prepared.and,.except.for.the.length.of.their.sentence,.thieves,.sex.offenders.
and. murderers. receive. the. same. treatment.. Furthermore,. with. the. exception. of. one. programme. in.
Ukraine,.post-release.support.is.non-existent..

The.number.of.girls.in.detention.and.correctional.facilities.is.small.and,.as.a.result,.they.are.kept.in.
facilities.for.adult.women..Although.they.may.be.housed.separately.from.adults,.there.is.inevitably.
contact. in. common. areas.. This. is. not. necessarily. a. violation. of. international. norms,. if. contact. is.
managed.so.as.to.be.in.the.best.interests.of.the.girls.concerned.–.but.it.may.also.lead.to.abuse.and.
should. be. carefully. monitored.. In. addition,. girls. who. are. detained. or. serving. custodial. sentences.
often. have. less. access. to. programmes. than. boys,. especially. educational. programmes.. Cost. and.
administrative. considerations,. no. matter. how. legitimate,. do. not. excuse. such. discrimination,. and.
ways.must.be.found.to.ensure.equal.access.to.all.programmes..

Core juvenile justice approaches
In.all.of.the.countries.covered.by.this.report,.prosecutors.have.discretion.not.to.prosecute.juveniles.
in. specific. circumstances,. even. when. there. is. sufficient. evidence. to. prosecute.. Traditionally,. the.
diversionary. measures. most. often. used. were. warning. or. supervision. by. parents. or. the. juvenile.
police.. Most. countries. still. do. not. have. community-based,. non-residential. programmes. to. assist.
juveniles.diverted.from.the.juvenile.justice.system..Efforts.to.develop.such.programmes.have.begun.
in.Armenia,.Azerbaijan.and.Moldova..

Conditional. sentences. and. sentences. of. ‘supervision’. have. long. been. used,. and. used. extensively..
Until.recently,.however,.little.assistance.was.provided..In.Georgia.and.Moldova,.probation.services.
have. been. established. in. order. to. provide. more. support. to. convicted. prisoners. given. non-
custodial.sentences,.including.juveniles;.in.Ukraine,.a.special.unit.of.the.State.Department.of.Penal.
Implementation.has.similar.functions..These.are.promising.developments,.but.one.big.challenge.is.
to.reduce.caseloads.to.the.point.where.staff.has.sufficient.time.to.provide.real.assistance.to.children..

In.all.five.countries,.restitution.and.reparation.of.the.victim.are.recognized.as.a.ground.for.absolving.
an. accused. of. responsibility. for. an. offence,. or. as. an. alternative. sentence.. With. the. exception. of.
Moldova,. such. dispositions. are. only. available. when. the. offence. is. not. a. serious. one. and/or. the.
offender. has. no. prior. record.. In. most. countries,. services. to. facilitate. victim-offender. mediation. do.
not.exist.or.are.not.yet.recognized,.and.such.dispositions.are.rare..

Similarly,. in. all. five. countries. courts. have. discretion. to. impose. ‘educational’. measures. on. juvenile.
offenders,. rather. than. sentences.. Such. measures. may. be. non-custodial,. or. may. involve. placement.
in.a.closed.educational.facility.that.is.not.part.of.the.correctional.system,.or.in.closed.rehabilitation.
facilities. for. persons. with. substance. abuse. or. psychosocial. disabilities.. The. main. challenge. is. that,.
in. some. countries,. the. programmes. and. facilities. envisaged. by. the. legislation. –. other. than. closed.
schools.and.supervision.–.simply.do.not.exist..

It. is. not. easy. to. evaluate. the. compatibility. of. law. and. practice. regarding. custodial. sentences. with.
international. standards. because. such. standards. are. vague.. The. law. concerning. the. sentencing.
of. juveniles. is. complex. in. these. countries.. The. main. emphasis. is. on. the. age. of. the. offender. and.
the. nature. of. the. offence,. but. the. law. also. provides. that. the. prior. record. of. the. offender,. the.
circumstances. of. the. offence. and. the. apparent. need. for. rehabilitation. must. be. taken. into. account..
The. maximum. sentence. that. can. be. imposed. on. a. juvenile. offender. convicted. of. serious. crimes. is. .

9


10. years. in. Armenia,. Azerbaijan. and. Ukraine,. 12. years. and. 6. months. in. Moldova. and. 15. years. in.
Georgia..Where.data.are.available,.they.indicate.that.few.offenders.receive.the.maximum.sentence..
The. fact. that. the. population. of. juvenile. correctional. facilities. is. declining. reinforces. the. impression.
that. law. and. practice. in. these. five. countries. are. within. the. parameters. of. what. is. considered.
acceptable. by. European. countries.. Whether. further. progress. is. needed. would. require. clarification.
of. how. the. `shortest. appropriate. period. of. time’. principle 8. should. be. interpreted. and. applied. as.
well.as.a.more.detailed.analysis.of.the.sentences.imposed.and.served.and.the.factors.that.influence.
sentencing.in.practice..

Three legacies of the Soviet era
Finally,. the. compatibility. of. three. institutions. characteristic. of. the. Soviet. era. –. juvenile. police,.
‘reception. and. distribution. centres’. and. ’special. schools’. –. with. juvenile. justice. principles. is.
considered..All.three.have.survived.in.the.countries.covered.by.this.report,.but.their.usefulness.and.
compatibility.with.the.rights.of.children.are.controversial..

In. the. five. countries,. the. role. of. juvenile. police. is. limited. to. prevention,. and. does. not. include. the.
investigation.of.offences.committed.by.juveniles..Consequently,.the.existence.of.specialized.police.
departments. has. no. direct. impact. on. the. treatment. of. juvenile. suspects.. Juvenile. police. can. make.
a. useful. contribution. to. prevention. but. should. not. be. expected. to. assume. primary. responsibility.
for. it,. and. the. resources. allocated. to. them. should. not. come. at. the. expense. of. other. community-.
and.school-based.programmes..Furthermore,.the.attention.given.to.new.child-friendly.practices.and.
the. treatment. of. child. victims. (e.g.,. ‘green. rooms’). should. not. distract. attention. from. the. need. to.
eradicate.abuses.committed.by.unspecialized.officers.against.juvenile.suspects.and.street.children.

‘Reception. and. distribution. centres’. are. multipurpose. residential. facilities. operated. by. the. juvenile.
police..They.provide.secure.(i.e.,.generally.closed).shelter.for.limited.periods.of.time.for.a.wide.range.
of.children.–.illegal.migrants,.repatriated.children,.children.who.have.escaped.from.residential.schools,.
street. children,. children. who. have. committed. an. offence. but. are. too. young. to. be. prosecuted,. and.
children.removed.from.their.homes.for.protection.before.a.decision.is.taken.by.guardianship.bodies.
or.courts.on.longer.term.measures..Conditions.in.some.such.facilities.are.very.good.–.the.‘Children’s.
Support.Centre’.operated.by.the.Fund.for.Armenian.Relief.pursuant.to.an.agreement.with.the.police.is.
a.good.example.in.this.respect..However,.these.facilities.are.governed.mainly.by.regulations.that.give.
the.police.very.broad.discretion.as.to.the.reasons.for.and.duration.of.placement..There.is,.no.doubt,.a.
need.for.child-friendly.emergency.shelters.in.the.kind.of.situations.mentioned.above,.but.it.is.important.
that.they.be.governed.by.clear.legal.standards.and.procedures,.and.that.the.services.provided.remain.
temporary.by.nature,.while.more.sustainable.solutions.are.being.sought.for.such.children.

‘Special.schools’.are.residential.schools.for.children.involved.in.offending.or.‘anti-social’.behaviour,.
operated. by. the. ministry. of. education,. not. the. prison. department.. The. assessment. covered. them.
for. three. reasons:. they. are. part. of. state. efforts. to. assist. children. at. risk;. some. of. the. students. are.
children.who.became.involved.in.offending.(especially.theft).while.too.young.to.be.prosecuted,.and.
placement.in.them.is.a.recognized.(though.seldom.used).alternative.sentence.for.juvenile.offenders..

Traditionally,. special. schools. violated. the. rights. of. children. because. of. the. criteria. and. procedures.
that. governed. placement,. because. separation. of. children. from. their. families. generally. became.
permanent,.because.children.were.not.treated.as.individuals.and,.sometimes,.because.of.substandard.
material.conditions.and.repressive.policies..

8
. Convention.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child,.Article.37(b)..

10


In.some.of.the.five.countries,.changes.in.the.legislation,.greater.awareness.of.child.rights.and.other.
factors. have. greatly. reduced. the. population. of. such. schools.. Impressive. reforms. have. taken. place.
in. a. few. of. them:. the. Samtredia. special. school. in. Georgia. and. School. No.. 1. in. Armenia. are. two.
good. examples.. Yet,. alternative. community-based. programmes. should. be. developed. as. a. priority.
even. though. the. need. for. residential. services. may. not. be. completely. eliminated.. The. environment.
of.some.children.is.such.that.separation.from.parents.may.be.necessary.in.order.to.provide.the.help.
required.. Placement. in. a. facility. that. embraces. the. goal. of. returning. the. child. to. his/her. family. as.
soon.as.possible.and.works.towards.that.aim.with.the.family.and.the.child.using.the.most.effective.
methods.known.can.be.an.effective.option..It.is.essential,.however,.to.ensure.that.the.aims,.criteria.
and.procedures.for.placement.are.compatible.with.children's.rights..

Conclusions
Significant. progress. has. been. made,. but. it. has. been. more. rapid. in. some. areas. than. others.. One. of.
the.most.remarkable.advances.has.been.the.improvement.of.conditions.in.correctional.facilities.for.
convicted.juveniles.and.the.reduction.in.the.number.of.juvenile.prisoners.

In.other.areas,.despite.noteworthy.progress,.gaps.and.difficulties.remain..Legal.aid.programmes.are.
one.example..Probation.services.and.diversion.programmes.are.another..Training.in.child.rights.and.
juvenile.justice.is.being.mainstreamed,.but.its.impact.is.seldom.evaluated.and.specific.requirements.
as. to. knowledge. or. skills. are. rare.. Important. progress. has. been. made. in. law. reform,. but. further.
reforms.are.necessary.to.prohibit.solitary.confinement,.restrict.the.duration.of.police.custody.to.24.
hours.or.less.and.limit.pretrial.detention.to.six.months..

Greater.efforts.are.urgently.needed.in.some.areas,.such.as.the.development.of.secondary.prevention;.
reduced.use.of.pretrial.detention.and.better.respect.for.the.rights.of.juveniles.detained.on.remand,.
including. separation. from. adults;. the. development. of. effective. community-based. programmes.
to. assist. offenders. diverted. from. prosecution. or. given. alternative. sentences;. the. development. of.
evidence-based. programmes. for. the. prevention. of. re-offending. in. correctional. settings;. and. the.
development.of.effective.post-release.programmes..

Another.key.challenge.concerns.the.establishment.of.adequate.systems.for.the.collection.and.analysis.
of. data. on. offending. and. on. the. functioning. and. impact. of. juvenile. justice. institutions. in. order. to.
ensure.‘evidence-based’.programmes.and.policies..Other.challenges.include.how.to.best.ensure.the.
right.of.accused.juveniles.to.‘child-friendly’.proceedings.and.clarify.the.role.and.functions.of.juvenile.
police.units,.special.schools.and.multipurpose.short-term.shelters.for.children.

Ensuring. accountability. for. abuse. is. an. urgent. problem.. Monitoring. by. ombudspersons,. legislation.
requiring.the.presence.of.lawyers.during.interrogation,.mandatory.medical.examinations.of.detainees.
and. training. in. the. rights. of. children. have. all. helped,. but. have. not. been. sufficient. to. overcome.
impunity..In.the.final.analysis,.the.solution.lies.in.creating.political.will.at.the.highest.level.to.respect.
the.rights.of.all.children..

Lessons.that.can.be.drawn.from.the.experiences.documented.in.this.report.include.the.importance.
of.intersectoral.coordination.bodies,.the.value.of.comprehensive.juvenile.justice.strategies.and.the.
significant.contribution.civil.society.can.make.to.the.development.of.all.aspects.of.juvenile.justice..

There.are,.fortunately,.good.practices.that.should.be.consolidated.and,.where.necessary,.extended.–.
as.well.as.promising.practices.that,.after.further.monitoring.and.evaluation.of.their.impact,.may.well.
prove.worthy.of.consolidation.and.expansion.

11


Box: Key UNICEF strategies

Armenia
• Mainstreaming juvenile justice concerns:. Advocacy. by. UNICEF. helped. ensure. inclusion. of.
objectives.concerning.juvenile.justice.in.the.National.Planof.Action.for.the.Protection.of.the.Rights.
of.the.Child.covering.the.years.2004–2015.

• Keeping juvenile justice on UNICEF’s agenda:. Support. to. the. development. of. juvenile. justice,.
consisting.largely.of.training,.was.mainstreamed.into.UNICEF’s.Child.Protection.Programme.

Azerbaijan
• Kick-starting the reform:. Despite. limited. funds. and. the. absence. of. a. pre-defined. strategy. for.
juvenile.justice.reform,.UNICEF.made.a.key.contribution.to.the.process.of.creating.a.juvenile.justice.
system.through.a.situation.analysis.(2006),.advocacy,.training.and.some.well-chosen.pilot.projects.

• Closely cooperating with national NGOs:.Reliance.mainly.on.the.NGO.Alliance.for.Children’s.Rights.
was. a. good. strategic. decision,. which. has. helped. ensure. that. UNICEF’s. aims. and. strategies. are.
appropriate,.while.also.building.capacity.and.encouraging.government-civil.society.cooperation.

Georgia
• Building upon a solid base-line: A. situation. analysis. financed. by. UNICEF. led. to. a. three-year.
€. 750,000. project. funded. by. the. Dutch. Government. focusing. on. policy. development,. law. reform,.
training. and. pilot. projects. on. diversion. and. alternative. sentencing,. followed. by. a. two-year. .
€. 1.27. million. programme. funded. by. the. European. Commission. focusing. on. the. development. of.
correctional.and.probation.services.for.juvenile.offenders..

• Intersectoral mobilization and dialogue:.The.negative.consequences.of.a.governmental.policy.of.
‘zero.tolerance’.towards.crime.adopted.as.the.projects.began.have.been.overcome.through.close.
cooperation.with.the.reconstituted.Criminal.Justice.Reform.Inter-Agency.Coordination.Council..

Moldova
• Self-correction and extended partnerships:.The.unrealistic.goals.of.a.first.UNICEF.juvenile.justice.
project. were. timely. modified. when. new. legislation. came. into. force. and. national. NGOs. played. a.
large.role.in.implementing.this.project,.which.strengthened.the.capacity.and.role.of.civil.society.in.
the.field.of.juvenile.justice..

• Consulting, consulting, consulting:. A. situation. analysis. prepared. as. part. of. the. first. project.
served. to. define. the. aims. of. a. second. project. (2008–2011).. An. intersectoral. Consultative. Council.
on. Juvenile. Justice. has. been. established,. and. a. Presidential. decree. calls. for. the. preparation. of. a.
National. Programme. of. Juvenile. Justice. Development.. Research. on. the. experiences. of. juvenile.
offenders.has.been.conducted.and.will.help.guide.implementation.of.this.project..

Ukraine
• Building upon the recommendations of the Committee on the Rights of the Child:. The. situation.
analysis. prepared. by. UNICEF. and. related. advocacy. designed. to. reinforce. the. comments. of. the.
Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child,.put.the.issue.of.juvenile.justice.on.the.national.agenda..

• Persevering:.In.a.difficult.political.environment,.UNICEF’s.persistence.and.flexibility.has.maintained.
momentum.even.though.delete.several.important.goals.have.not.been.achieved..

• Cooperation with other human rights agencies:.UNICEF.cooperated.effectively.with.the.Office.of.
the.United.Nations.High.Commissioner.for.Human.Rights.

12


Introduction: Why these Assessments?
When. the. Convention. on. the. Rights. of. the. Child. was. adopted,. two. decades. ago,. few. if. any.
countries.had.juvenile.justice.systems.that.were.fully.compatible.with.the.relevant.provisions.of.the.
Convention.. When. States. parties. to. the. Convention. began. to. present. their. implementation. reports.
to. the. Committee. on. the. Rights. of. the. Child,. the. Committee. invariably. made. recommendations.
concerning. the. need. to. transform. laws,. policies. and. practices. regarding. the. treatment. of. juvenile.
offenders,.regardless.of.whether.the.country.was.rich.or.poor,.democratic.or.totalitarian,.from.Africa,.
Asia,.Europe.or.the.Americas..

UNICEF. first. began. supporting. juvenile. justice. reform. in. Latin. America. during. the. 1990s.. In. the.
CEE/CIS. region,. it. started. supporting. the. development. of. juvenile. justice. systems. at. the. beginning.
of. the. new. millennium.. Involvement. in. juvenile. justice. in. this. region. grew. out. of. work. on. de-
institutionalization. initiated. during. the. 1990s.. It. also. reflected. support. to. the. participation. of. civil.
society.in.the.process.of.monitoring.the.implementation.of.the.Convention..During.a.period.of.severe.
economic. crisis. and. social. insecurity,. child. rights. organizations. were. concerned. by. the. repressive.
and.often.inhuman.treatment.of.street.children.and.adolescents.involved.in.petty.crime..

The.historic.social,.political.and.economic.transformations.that.coincided.in.Eastern.Europe.and.the.
Soviet.Union.with.the.adoption.of.the.Convention.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child.in.1989.led.to.reforms.of.
legislation,.law.enforcement,.and.the.administration.of.justice.and.corrections.on.an.unprecedented.
scale.. This. created. unique. opportunities. to. advance. the. human. rights. and. child. rights. agenda..
During. the. 1990s,. juvenile. justice. was. not. a. priority. for. most. countries. in. the. region,. but. most. are.
now. engaged. in. the. process. of. developing. juvenile. justice. systems. compatible. with. international.
standards..The.recommendations.of.the.Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child.have.been.instrumental.
in.putting.juvenile.justice.on.the.agenda..

UNICEF.began.supporting.activities.related.to.juvenile.justice.in.1998.in.Armenia,.in.2001.in.Georgia.
and. Moldova,. in. 2003. in. Ukraine. and. in. 2005. in. Azerbaijan.. Experience. with. de-institutionalization.
during. the. 1990s. and. growing. expertise. in. child. rights. have. enabled. UNICEF. to. make. a. special.
contribution.to.these.reforms,.with.the.support.of.European.and.other.international.actors..

Among.the.twenty-two.countries.under.the.mandate.of.the.UNICEF.CEE/CIS.Regional.Office,.fifteen.
are.members.of.the.Council.of.Europe, 9.two.are.members.of.the.European.Union,10.three.are.European.
Union.candidate.countries,11.four.are.European.Union.acceding.countries12.and.six.participate.in.the.
European. Neighbourhood. Policy. (ENP).13. Throughout. most. of. the. region,. European. standards. are.
as.relevant.as.United.Nations.standards,.and.United.Nations.and.European.actors.are.working.side.
by.side.to.support.the.development.of.legal.and.social.institutions.and.policies.that.respect.human.
rights..

One.of.UNICEF’s.strengths.is.its.commitment.to.evaluating.the.impact.of.its.interventions..In.2007,.the.
UNICEF.CEE/CIS.Regional.Office.decided.to.review.the.experience.of.four.country.activities.in.order.
to. identify. lessons. that. could. be. learned. from. their. efforts. to. support. the. development. of. fair. and.

9
. Albania,.Armenia,.Azerbaijan,.Bosnia.and.Herzegovina,.Bulgaria,.Croatia,.Georgia,.Moldova,.Montenegro,.Romania,.the.
Russian.Federation,.Serbia,.The.former.Yugoslav.Republic.of.Macedonia,.Turkey.and.Ukraine..
10
. Bulgaria.and.Romania.
11
. Croatia,.The.former.Yugoslav.Republic.of.Macedonia.and.Turkey.
12
. Albania,.Bosnia.and.Herzegovina,.Montenegro.and.Serbia.
13
. Armenia,.Azerbaijan,.Belarus,.Georgia,.Moldova.and.Ukraine.

13


humane.juvenile.justice.systems.14.In.2008,.the.attempt.to.document.the.changes.operated.in.juvenile.
justice,. identify. good. practices. and. draw. lessons. continued. with. assessments. of. juvenile. justice.
reforms.in.Albania,.Azerbaijan,.Kazakhstan,.Turkey.and.Ukraine..In.2009,.assessments.were.carried.
out.in.four.additional.countries.–.Armenia,.Georgia,.Kosovo.and.Moldova..Further.assessments.are.
planned.for.2010.15

The. present. overview. summarizes. the. results. of. the. assessments. carried. out. in. five. of. the. six.
European.Neighbourhood.Policy.countries:.Azerbaijan.and.Ukraine.(2008).and.Armenia,.Georgia.and.
Moldova.(2009)..It.has.two.main.purposes..

The. first. is. to. facilitate. the. sharing. of. information. and. experiences. between. the. UNICEF. country.
offices.involved.in.this.area.and.their.partners.in.government.and.civil.society;.to.provide.information.
likely. to. help. them. adopt. more. effective. strategies. and. make. more. informed. decisions. about.
difficult.policy.questions.arising.in.the.process.of.creating.new.juvenile.justice.systems;.to.identify.
successful.experiences.that.can.serve.as.models;.and.to.locate.resources.–.legislation,.programmes,.
individual. experts,. training. materials. and. curricula,. and. so. on. –. to. be. used. regionally. as. well. as.
locally.. Two. regional. meetings. have. taken. place. and. are. contributing. to. the. creation. of. a. ‘critical.
mass’.of.countries.committed.to.the.development.of.juvenile.justice.systems.that.are.both.efficient.
and.respectful.of.the.rights.of.children.16.

The. second. is. to. share. our. experiences. with. European. and. other. international. agencies,. which.
cooperate. in. supporting. the. development. of. juvenile. justice,. or. support. activities. closely. related.
to. juvenile. justice,. in. areas. such. as. the. administration. of. justice,. law. enforcement. and. corrections..
While.inter-agency.cooperation.and.coordination.have.not.been.a.focus.of.these.assessments,.they.
clearly.demonstrate.the.value.of.good.cooperation.and.coordination.as.well.as.the.risks.of.inadequate.
coordination..In.addition,.the.five.countries.covered.by.this.report.have.strong.commonalities.both.
in. terms. of. justice. systems. and. policy. priorities.. It. is. important. to. give. juvenile. justice. adequate.
attention. and. visibility. in. these. contexts. when. important. budget. support. from. European. partners.
aims.at.strengthening.the.rule.of.law.and.democracy..We.need.to.ensure.that.juvenile.offenders.and.
children.at.risk.also.benefit.from.broader.reform.agendas..

14
. See.Thematic Evaluation of UNICEF’s Contribution to Juvenile Justice System Reform in four countries: Montenegro,
Romania, Serbia and Tajikistan,.Development.Researchers’.Network.and.UNICEF.CEE/CIS.Regional.Office,.Geneva,.2007.
15
. They.will.include.Bosnia.and.Herzegovina,.The.former.Yugoslav.Republic.of.Macedonia.and.two.Central.Asian.countries..
16
. The.first.meeting.took.place.in.Geneva.in.July.2008,.and.the.second.in.Istanbul.in.June.2009..

14


Scope and Methodology
The.scope.and.methodology.used.for.these.assessments.were.prepared.in.2008.by.an.international.
consultant. working. in. close. collaboration. with. concerned. field. UNICEF. child. protection. officers.. In.
each.country,.the.international.consultant.and.a.local.consultant.formed.the.assessment.team..The.
local.consultant.in.principle.participated.fully.in.all.aspects.of.the.mission,.advised.the.international.
consultant.on.national.law.and.other.relevant.matters,.and.participated.in.the.revision.and.finalization.
of.the.country.report.17.

The. exercise. covered. three. main. areas:. the. process. of. juvenile. justice. reform,. the. juvenile. justice.
system,.and.UNICEF’s.support.to.juvenile.justice.reform..A.fourth.area.–.data collection and analysis –.
was.added.at.a.later.stage.to.assess.whether.the.national.authorities.have.the.data.needed.to.develop.
policies.and.monitor.the.functioning.of.the.various.components.of.juvenile.justice.systems.and,.if.so,.
to. what. extent. the. data. are. used. appropriately.. This. allowed. checking. the. relevance. and. utility. of.
existing.regional.and.international.indicators.18

Recognizing. the. importance. of. the. experience. and. opinions. of. children. whose. lives. have. been.
marked,. for. better. or. worse,. by. contacts. with. juvenile. justice. authorities,. UNICEF. also. decided. to.
support.surveys.of.the.experience.of.such.children.in.the.countries.covered.by.the.assessments..

During. each. of. the. two-week. country. missions,. the. assessment. team. interviewed. representatives.
of. all. ministries,. agencies. and. institutions. concerned. with. juvenile. justice. –. typically. the. ministries.
of.justice.and.internal.affairs,.the.national.police,.the.prison.department,.the.probation.department.
or.equivalent,.the.judiciary,.the.office.of.the.prosecutor,.in.some.cases.the.child.welfare.department.
or. a. representative. of. the. ministry. of. education,. and. a. representative. of. the. national. juvenile.
justice. coordination. council. or. committee,. where. one. exists.. Parliamentarians,. ombudspersons,.
representatives.of.institutions.responsible.for.the.training.of.police,.judges.and.prosecutors.as.well.
as.national.statistical.agencies.were.interviewed,.whenever.possible..

Representatives.of.national.and.international.non-governmental.organizations.interested.in.juvenile.
justice.were.interviewed,.as.were.UNICEF.staff.and.representatives.of.other.United.Nations,.European.
or.bilateral.agencies.and.organizations.active.in.areas.such.as.child.rights.and.support.to.law.reform,.
administration. of. justice,. prison. reform. and. similar. areas.. Visits. were. made. to. courts,. pretrial.
detention.facilities,.juvenile.correctional.facilities,.women’s.prisons.(where.convicted.adolescent.girls.
serve. their. sentences),. reform. schools. for. offenders. too. young. to. be. prosecuted. as. juveniles,. and.
projects.offering.prevention.services,.diversion,.mediation.or.placement.for.alternative.sentences..A.
list.of.persons.interviewed.and.documents.consulted.is.appended.to.each.assessment..

17
. The.local.consultants.were.Lilit.Petrosyan,.Armenia;.Dr..Nabil.Seyidov,.Azerbaijan;.Teona.Kuchara,.Georgia;.and.Prof..
Vasile.Rotary,.Moldova..(In.Ukraine.the.local.consultant.did.not.participate.fully.in.the.mission.or.drafting.of.the.report.due.
to.other.commitments;.in.Georgia.the.local.consultant.was.unable.to.participate.in.part.of.the.mission.for.health.reasons.
and.in.Moldova.Prof..Rotaru.was.replaced.by.Prof..V..Zaharia.for.part.of.the.assessment.mission.)
18
. Regional and International Indicators on Juvenile Justice: Their applicability and relevance in selected countries of Eastern
Europe and Central Asia,.UNICEF.Regional.Office.for.CEE/CIS,.Geneva,.2009.

15


Context
Armenia,.Azerbaijan,.Georgia,.Moldova.and.Ukraine.became.independent.of.the.former.Union.of.Soviet.
Socialist.Republics.in.1991..They.are.all.Member.States.of.the.United.Nations,.the.Council.of.Europe,.
and.the.Organization.for.Security.and.Co-operation.in.Europe.(OSCE),.and.they.are.all.included.in.the.
European. Union’s. European. Neighbourhood. Policy. (ENP).. They. are. all. parties. to. both. the. European.
Convention. for. the. Protection. of. Human. Rights. and. Fundamental. Freedoms. and. the. European.
Convention.for.the.Prevention.of.Torture.and.Inhuman.or.Degrading.Treatment.or.Punishment.19

They.vary.greatly.in.size.and.economic.and.demographic.indicators..

GNI per capita Population
Total
Countries (purchasing aged 0–18 Territory 23
population 21
power parity)20 years 22

Armenia US$.6,310 3.08.million 26.per.cent 29,800.km2

Azerbaijan US$.7,770 8.68.million 31.per.cent 86,600.km2

Georgia US$.4,850 4.36.million 22.per.cent 69,700.km2

Moldova US$.3,210 .6.36.million 13.per.cent 33,800.km2

Ukraine US$.7,210 46.26.million 18.per.cent 603,600.km2

The.years.following.independence.were.marked.by.a.sharp.decline.in.social.and.economic.indicators.
in. all. of. these. countries.. Even. if. their. economies. have. grown. stronger. during. the. last. decade,. a.
significant. part. of. their. populations. remain. in. poverty.. The. population. of. Georgia,. Moldova. and.
Ukraine.is.decreasing, 24.and.in.all.five.countries.emigration.is.relatively.high. 25

19
. Armenia.and.Azerbaijan.ratified.both.treaties.in.2002;.Georgia.ratified.the.former.in.1999.and.the.latter.in.2000;.Moldova.
ratified.the.former.in.1997.and.the.latter.in.1998;.and.Ukraine.ratified.both.in.1997..See.http://www.conventions.coe.int/
Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=126&CM = 8&DF=18/03/2010&CL= ENG.accessed.31.May.2010.
20
. World.Bank.Data.Profile,.2008.
21
. Ibid.
22
. United.Nations.Children’s.Fund,.The State of the World’s Children 2009,.UNICEF,.New.York,.2009,.Table.6.(calculation.based.
on.total.population.as.per.World.Bank.Data.Profile,.supra).
23
. World.Bank.Data.Profile,.2008.
24
. From.2000.to.2006,.according.to.World.Bank.estimates,.the.population.of.Georgia.has.fallen.by.370,000;.the.population.of.
Moldova.has.fallen.by.360,000;.and.that.of.Ukraine.has.fallen.by.3.9.million..
25
. The.average.emigration.rate.for.the.CEE/CIS.region.is.9.5.per.cent.(United.Nations.Development.Programme,.Human
Development Report 2009,.Country.fact.sheets,.UNDP,.2009.).See.http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/countries /alphabetical/,.
accessed.31.May.2010.

16


Population
below national
Countries GDP 2000 26 GDP 2008 27 Emigration 29
poverty line
2000–2006 28

Armenia US$.1.91.billion US$.11.96.billion 50.9.per.cent 20.3.per.cent

Azerbaijan US$.5.27.billion US$.46.26.billion 49.6.per.cent 14.3.per.cent

Georgia US$.3.06.billion US$.12.79.billion 54.5.per.cent 18.3.per.cent

Moldova US$.1.29.billion US$.6.05.billion n/a 14.3.per.cent

Ukraine US$.31.26.billion US$.180.35.billion 19.5.per.cent 10.9.per.cent

Most. of. the. five. countries. were. also. marked. by. political. turmoil. and. armed. conflict.. Conflict. over.
Nagorno. Karabakh. broke. out. in. 1991. and. ended. in. 1994. with. the. signing. of. a. peace. agreement.
by. Armenia. and. Azerbaijan.. When. Georgia. became. independent,. separatist. conflicts. broke. out. in.
Abkhazia.(North-West.Georgia).and.in.South.Ossetia..Ceasefire.agreements.came.into.effect.in.1994.
and.1992,.respectively,.but.in.August.2008.Russian.forces.entered.Abkhazia.and.South.Ossetia,.and.
the.Russian.Federation.recognized.them.as.independent.States..In.Moldova,.separatist.movements.
broke.in.the.Transnistria.region.(Eastern.Moldova).and.in.Gagauzia.(Southern.Moldova)..A.ceasefire.
was.negotiated.in.Transnistria.in.1992,.and.the.region.remains.under.the.control.of.an.unrecognized.
government..In.1994,.Gagauzia.was.recognized.as.a.semi-autonomous.region..

In. Georgia,. protests. following. national. elections. in. 2003. led. to. the. resignation. of. the. President,.
marking. a. transformation. of. national. politics. known. as. the. ‘Rose. Revolution’.. In. Ukraine,. protests.
known.as.the.‘Orange.Revolution’.resulted.in.new.presidential.elections.in.2004.and.opened.a.period.
of. broad. political,. social,. economic. and. legal. reforms.. In. 2007,. however,. differences. between. the.
President.and.the.Prime.Minister.led.to.a.prolonged.political.crisis.in.which.the.adoption.of.legislative.
and.other.reforms.was.very.difficult..

In. Armenia,. the. resignation. of. the. President. in. 1998. and. assassination. of. the. Prime. Minister. the.
following. year. led. to. several. years. of. political. instability.. Demonstrations. culminating. in. several.
deaths. marked. the. most. recent. national. elections,. in. 2008. 30. In. Moldova,. discontent. with. the.
2009.electoral.results.led.to.protests.that.ended.in.the.partial.destruction.of.the.Parliament.and.office.
of.the.President..

Offending.increased.significantly.in.three.of.the.five.countries.during.the.decade.after.independence,.
according.to.available.data,.but.fell.drastically.during.the.following.decade,.or.the.second.half.of.the.
new.decade. 31

26
. The.World.Bank,.World.Development.Indicators.database,.Country.Profiles..See.web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/
DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20535285~menuPK:1192694~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.
html,.accessed.31.May.2010.
27
. Ibid.
28
. UNDP.Country.fact.sheets,.supra.
29
. Ibid.
30
. Commission.of.the.European.Communities,.Implementation.of.the.European.Neighbourhood.Policy.in.2008,.Progress.
Report.Armenia,.SEC(2009).511/2,.2009,.p..3.
31
. Data.on.offending.by.juveniles.in.these.countries.are.incomplete,.and.the.data.available.must.be.treated.with.caution..

17


In. Armenia,. for. example,. data. on. offending. for. the. first. two. years. after. independence. are. not.
available,. but. for. the. rest. of. the. decade. they. show. that. the. number. of. juvenile. offenders. and. the.
number. of. offences. committed. by. juveniles. decreased. from. 1993. to. 1995,. peaked. in. 1997,. then. fell.
sharply. in. 1998. and. remained. low. for. the. rest. of. the. decade. 32. The. number. of. offences. registered.
by. the. General. Investigative. Department. of. the. Police. of. the. Republic. of. Armenia. in. recent. years. .
(2004–2008).suggests.that.the.decline.in.offending.has.continued. 33

Moldova. registered. a. 60. per. cent. increase. in. offending. by. juveniles. during. the. decade. following.
independence. 34. The. number. of. juveniles. convicted. of. an. offence. appears. to. have. been. relatively.
stable.during.the.1990s,.however,.raising.questions.as.to.the.reliability.or.significance.of.the.increase.
in. offending. 35. Offending. by. juveniles. peaked. in. 2004,. and. has. subsequently. fallen. to. below. the.
number. reported. in. 1992. –. a. decrease. of. 45. per. cent. over. five. years. 36. The. number. of. homicides,.
however,. did. not. diminish. and. the. number. of. rapes. rose. dramatically. 37. In. Ukraine,. the. number. of.
offences. committed. by. juveniles. increased. considerably. from. 1992. to. 2003,. and. has. fallen. sharply.
since.then. 38.In.Azerbaijan,.data.on.offending.by.juveniles.during.the.years.following.independence.
are.not.available,.but.the.number.of.offences.committed.by.juveniles.over.the.last.decade.has.been.
relatively. low. and. generally. in. decline. 39. Georgia. is. an. exception:. data. show. a. large. increase. in.
convictions.between.2005.and.2006,.when.a.‘zero.tolerance’.policy.towards.crime.was.announced..In.
2005,.475.juveniles.were.convicted.and.104.given.custodial.sentences;.in.2006,.1,002.were.convicted.
and.340.given.custodial.sentences.–.i.e.,.123.per.cent.increase.in.convictions.and.325.per.cent.increase.
in.custodial.sentences.40.Since.then,.the.number.of.convictions.has.grown.slightly. 41.Many.observers.
agree.that.the.upsurge.in.convictions.of.juveniles.in.2006.reflects.a.real.crime.wave.and.cannot.be.
attributed. entirely. to. stricter. law. enforcement.. The. fourfold. increase. in. convictions. of. juveniles. for.
homicides. and. the. 30. per. cent. increase. in. convictions. for. all. crimes. of. violence. between. 2005. and.
2006.confirm.a.real.escalation.in.serious.offending.by.juveniles.at.that.time.42

32
. 436.offences.committed.by.552.juvenile.offenders.in.1993,.and.420.offences.committed.by.444.juveniles.in.1995;.741.
offences.committed.by.975.juveniles.in.1997;.589.offences.committed.by.479.juveniles.in.1998..See.Giles,.G.,.Report on
Juvenile Justice and Delinquency in Armenia,.UNICEF.Yerevan,.2001.(hereinafter.‘situation.analysis’),.citing.unpublished.
Ministry.of.Justice.data.
33
. 175.offences.committed.by.211.offenders.in.2004;.150.offences.committed.by.185.juveniles.in.2005;.161.offences.
committed.by.199.juveniles.in.2006;.189.offences.committed.by.261.juveniles.in.2007.and.174.offences.committed.by.223.
juveniles.in.2008.(unpublished.data.provided.to.the.UNICEF.assessment.team.by.the.General.Investigative.Department).
34
. From.1,652.cases.in.1992.to.2,684.in.2001,.according.to.data.cited.in.Juvenile Justice in the Republic of Moldova –
Evaluation Report 2002–2003,.UNICEF,.2003,.p..10.
35
. Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child,.Consideration.of.reports.submitted.by.States.parties.under.Article.44.of.the.
Convention,.Initial.report.of.the.Republic.of.Moldova,.CRC/C/28/Add.19,.2002,.para..391..There.was.a.sharp.increase.in.
convictions.in.2000.and.2001.(1,934.and.1,894,.respectively).
36
. 2,753.in.2004.and.1,502.in.2008,.according.to.the.publication.of.the.National.Bureau.of.Statistics,.The situation of children in
the Republic of Moldova in 2008,.No..08-06/126,.2009,.Table.7..
37
. E.g.,.12.homicides.in.2004.and.the.same.number.in.2008;.25.rapes.in.2004.and.115.in.2008..(For.the.most.recent.data,.see.
Bulletin of the Supreme Court of Justice, No. 3,.March.2009.)
38
. Number.of.offences.committed.by.juveniles:.11,620.in.1992;.21,800.in.2003,.11,170.in.2007,.in.Amdzhadin,.L.,.and.
Honcharuk,.O.,.Social Practices and Legislation in the Area of Juvenile Delinquency,.National.Academy.of.Sciences,.
Institute.of.Sociology,.Centre.of.Social.Expertise,.UNICEF,.Kyiv,.2008..There.has.been.some.controversy.as.to.the.
implications.of.these.data.during.recent.years.because.the.threshold.for.theft.depends.on.the.value.of.the.item.stolen,.
which.is.affected.by.changes.in.economic.indicators..
39
. From.601.in.1998.to.485.in.2007..The.lowest.number.during.this.decade.was.412,.in.2003..See.State.Statistical.Committee,.
Crimes and Offences in Azerbaijan,.Baku,.2008,.Table.4.2..
40
. Unpublished.Supreme.Court.data.provided.to.UNICEF.Georgia..Fragmentary.data.from.the.1990s.indicate.that.the.annual.
number.of.convictions.was.closer.to.300..See.Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child,.Consideration.of.reports.submitted.by.
States.parties.under.Article.44.of.the.Convention,.Initial.report.of.Georgia,.CRC/C/41/Add.4/Rev.1,.1998,.para..294.
41
. 1,060.convictions.in.2007.and.1,166.in.2008.–.increase.of.1.per.cent.or.less..
42
. Ibid..(From.5.to.21.and.from.24.to.82,.respectively.)

18


European. Neighbourhood. Policy. Action. Plans. were. adopted. for. Moldova. in. 2005. and. for. Armenia,.
Azerbaijan. and. Georgia. in. 2006.. With. one. exception,. they. do. not. contain. aims. specifically. related.
to. juvenile. justice.. The. European. Union-Armenia. Action. Plan. contains. a. number. of. objectives,.
which.in.principle.should.benefit.juvenile.suspects,.offenders.and.prisoners.as.well.as.adults.(e.g.,.
strengthening. the. human. rights. ombudsperson. and. legal. aid. programmes). and. some. objectives.
specifically.concerning.children,.but.none.specifically.related.to.juvenile.justice..The.European.Union-
Moldova.Action.Plan.contains.several.objectives.regarding.social.programmes.for.children,.but.none.
related. to. juvenile. justice,. and. only. a. few. (e.g.,. human. rights. training,. development. of. mediation).
that.might.be.expected.to.have.significant.indirect.benefits.for.juvenile.suspects.and.offenders..The.
European.Union-Azerbaijan.Action.Plan.does.not.contain.any.objectives.specifically.related.to.juvenile.
justice.. The. European. Union-Georgia. Action. Plan,. adopted. in. 2006,. called. for. the. development. and.
implementation. of. a. strategy. aiming. to. reform. the. criminal. justice. system. but,. as. indicated. below,.
this.strategy.had.negative.as.well.as.positive.consequences.for.juvenile.justice..The.European.Union-
Ukraine. Action. Plan. on. Justice,. Freedom. and. Security,. adopted. in. 2007,. is. the. only. plan. in. force. in.
any. of. these.countries. to.contain.a. specific. commitment.to.“Ensure. full.implementation.of.juvenile.
justice.standards.in.line.with.relevant.international.standards.”43.

43
. European.Union-Ukraine.Action.Plan,.section.2.1(10).

19


PART I. Foundational Issues: Policy, Law Reform, Training,
Coordination, Data and Research
Before. presenting. the. findings. of. the. assessments. undertaken. in. the. five. countries. covered. by. the.
present.report,.this.chapter.considers.issues.that.influence.the.development.of.juvenile.justice,.such.
as. national. policies,. law. reform,. training,. coordination. mechanisms,. the. collection. and. use. of. data.
and.research..

1. Juvenile justice policy
The.Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child.has.stressed.that.the.Convention.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child.
“requires.States.parties.to.develop.and.implement.a.comprehensive.juvenile.justice.policy.”44.

None.of.the.five.countries.covered.by.the.present.report.have.such.a.policy,.at.present,.and.Georgia.
is.the.only.one.to.have.a.juvenile.justice.strategy.document..

In.Georgia,.a.Criminal.Justice.Reform.Strategy.prepared.with.the.support.of.the.European.Union.was.
adopted.in.2005,.and.an.action.plan.for.implementing.the.Strategy.was.adopted.in.2006..The.Strategy.
contained. components. on. the. police. and. crime. prevention,. prosecution,. legal. aid,. the. courts. and.
judiciary,.the.Criminal.Code.and.the.Code.of.Criminal.Procedure,.the.prison.system,.probation,.legal.
education.and.the.Public.Defender.(autonomous.human.rights.monitor)..Unfortunately,.it.contained.
only.one.brief.mention.of.juveniles,.indicating.that.juvenile.prisoners.shall.enjoy.the.rights.recognized.
by.international.human.rights.law. 45.

While. many. elements. of. the. Strategy. are. beneficial. for. both. juveniles. and. adults,. some. elements.
that.may.be.appropriate.for.adults.(e.g.,.allowing.the.police.to.detain.suspects.for.48.hours.without.
a.court.order).are.not.compatible.with.the.rights.of.juveniles. 46.The.proposed.introduction.of.trial.by.
jury.for.persons.accused.of.serious.offences.is.another.example.of.a.reform.that.is.inappropriate.for.
the. trial. of. juveniles. 47. The. section. of. the. Strategy. on. crime. prevention. makes. no. special. reference.
to.juveniles..The.action.plan.even.called.for.the.establishment.of.a.correctional.facility.for.offenders.
aged. 12−14. years,. although. both. UNICEF. and. the. Committee. on. the. Rights. of. the. Child. opposed.
bringing.children.under.age.14.into.juvenile.justice.precisely.because.no.such.facility.existed. 48.

Failure. to. take. into. account. the. special. needs. of. children. in. the. preparation. of. the. Criminal. Justice.
Reform.Strategy.was.a.lost.opportunity..Moreover,.it.led.to.a.situation.where.advocacy.for.the.reforms.

44
. Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child,.Children’s.rights.in.juvenile.justice,.General.Comment.No..10,.CRC/C/GC/10,.2007,.
paras..4−5.
45
. Strategy.for.the.Reform.of.the.Criminal.Legislation.of.Georgia,.Tbilisi,.2005,.p..17.
46
. The.Committee.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child.has.indicated.that.children.taken.into.custody.must.be.presented.within.24.
hours.to.a.court.or.other.authority.having.competence.to.determine.the.legality.of.the.deprivation.of.liberty..See.General.
Comment.No..10,.CRC/C/GC/10,.supra,.para..83.
47
. The.participation.of.a.jury.–.lay.persons.whose.role.is.to.represent.the.community.−.does.not.seem.in.harmony.with.the.
principle.that.proceedings.concerning.accused.juveniles.should.be.confidential.(Convention.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child,.
Article.40(2)(b)(vii);.United.Nations.Standard.Minimum.Rules.for.the.Administration.of.Juvenile.Justice.(the.Beijing.Rules),.
Rule.8;.and.General.Comment.No..10,.CRC/C/GC/10,.supra,.paras..64−66),.nor.with.the.principle.that.courts.that.try.juvenile.
offenders.should.be.specialized.(General.Comment.No..10,.CRC/C/GC/10,.supra,.paras..40.and.93)..Trial.by.jury.is.rare.in.
juvenile.courts,.in.jurisdictions.where.jury.trials.are.recognized.as.a.right.of.the.defendant.in.ordinary.criminal.cases..One.
article.about.juvenile.justice.in.the.United.States.indicated.that.only.16.states.(out.of.50).allow.jury.trials.for.juveniles,.and.
the.actual.use.of.juries.is.not.common.(see.Ainsworth,.Janet.E.,.‘Re-imagining.Childhood.and.Reconstructing.the.Legal.
Order:.The.Case.for.Abolishing.the.Juvenile.Court’,.in.S..Randall.Humm,.et.al.,.eds.,.Child, Parent, and State,.University.of.
Pennsylvania.Press,.1994)..
48
. In.2010,.the.legislation.was.amended.to.return.the.minimum.age.for.prosecution.to.14.years.

20


needed. to. make. the. justice. system. compatible. with. the. rights. of. juveniles. required. introducing.
modifications.into.the.larger.reform.process..

A. Juvenile. Justice. Working. Group. was. established. to. prepare. a. national. strategy. and. action. plan..
The. Strategy. was. adopted. in. May. 2009.. It. is. comprehensive,. addresses. the. need. for. prevention,.
diversion,. reduction. of. pretrial. detention,. more. ‘child-friendly’. hearings,. greater. use. of. alternative.
sentences. (including. community. service. and. restorative. justice),. improved. conditions. in. detention.
and. correctional. facilities,. reform. of. the. early. release. system,. programmes. to. assist. offenders.
continue.their.education.or.find.employment.and.the.further.training.of.juvenile.justice.professionals..
The.Strategy.responds.positively.to.many.of.the.recommendations.of.the.Committee.on.the.Rights.of.
the.Child.as.well.as.to.recommendations.made.by.the.situation.analysis.and.this.report..In.particular,.
it. calls. for. the. minimum. age. for. prosecution. as. a. juvenile. to. be. raised. to. 14. years.. It. is. based. on. a.
frank. assessment. of. recent. data. on. offending. and. sentencing,. while. also. recognizing. the. need. to.
collect.data.on.additional.indicators.and.to.improve.the.reliability.of.data..

In. Moldova,. no. national. policy. on. juvenile. justice. has. been. adopted.. A. national. Strategy. for.
Strengthening.the.Judicial.System.was.approved.by.the.Parliament.in.2007,.as.part.of.the.government’s.
commitments.to.the.European.Union. 49.“Streamlining.the.system.of.justice.for.minors”.is.one.of.the.
nine. components. of. the. Strategy. 50. Four. specific. objectives/activities. are. identified:. evaluate. the.
needs.in.terms.of.staff.and.infrastructure;.reform.the.law.to.increase.due.process.and.simplify.legal.
proceedings;.improve.the.specialization.of.judges.and.train.staff;.and.establish.the.infrastructure.for.a.
well.functioning.juvenile.justice.system. 51.This.section.calls.for.improvement.in.cases.in.which.children.
are.victims.or.in.which.they.are.accused..Some.aims.mentioned.in.other.sections.of.the.Strategy,.in.
particular.reducing.the.delay.in.trials,.would.also.be.very.beneficial.for.juvenile.defendants..

These.aims.are.good,.although.their.real.value.depends.on.the.kind.of.measures.adopted.to.achieve.
them,. which. are. not. identified.. The. explicit. call. for. the. creation. of. specialized. economic. courts.
throughout.the.country.in.another.section,.for.example,.contrasts.with.the.vagueness.of.references.
to.specialization.and.to.the.establishment.of.a.juvenile.justice.system..

The. National. Development. Strategy. for. the. years. 2008–2011. calls. for. the. strengthening. of. juvenile.
justice,.in.particular.by.“Improving.the.legislative.framework.in.the.area.of.minors’.rights.protection.
by.developing.proposals.for.uniform.regulation.aimed.at.streamlining.proceedings.and.increasing.the.
procedural.guaranties.granted.to.minors.[and].Creating.the.infrastructure.for.the.proper.functioning.
of.juvenile.justice.by.a.specialization.of.judges.and.other.categories.of.staff.within.the.judicial.system.
and. by. creating. a. documentation. and. information. centre. accessible. to. professionals. in. the. area. of.
juvenile.justice.”52.These.goals.are.vague,.but.very.relevant..

The. Strategy. also. recommends. that. the. police. prevent. offending. through. “special. measures.
and. programmes. for. minors. and. their. families. living. in. an. environment. with. an. increased. risk. of.
delinquency...”53. Recognition. that. more. needs. to. be. done. to. prevent. offending. is. positive,. but. the.
failure.to.recognize.that.a.much.more.comprehensive,.evidence-based.approach.is.necessary.confirms.
the.importance.of.improved.advocacy.on.prevention..

49
. Judiciary.System.Strengthening.Strategy,.adopted.by.the.Parliament.of.Moldova.in.Decision.No..174-XVI.of.19.July.2007.
50
. Ibid.,.Annex,.section.7.
51
. Ibid.,.section.7(d).
52
. National.Development.Strategy.for.the.years.2008–2011,.adopted.by.Law.No..295-XVI.of.21.December.2007,.section.
1.2.3(iv).
53
. Ibid.,.section.1.1.3(vi).

21


In.Armenia,.there.is.no.national.strategy.on.juvenile.justice.per se..The.National.Plan.for.the.Protection.
of.the.Rights.of.the.Child.2004–2015.does.call.for.the.“establish[ment].of.a.juvenile.justice.system.”54.
Part.VII,.on.‘Violation.of.law.and.justice’.calls,.inter alia,.for.greater.use.of.alternative.sentences,.the.
reduction. in. the. number. of. juveniles. in. the. correctional. system. and. better. cooperation. among. the.
responsible. ministries. and. between. the. statistical. and. correctional. services. 55. Some. of. these. aims.
have.been.achieved..

The.National.Programme.for.the.Prevention.of.Crime.2008–2012.also.includes.activities.specifically.
designed. to. prevent. offending. by. juveniles.. There. are. still,. however,. a. number. of. policy. questions.
that.need.to.be.resolved.–.ideally.in.the.context.of.a.coherent.and.comprehensive.strategy.on.juvenile.
offending.and.juvenile.justice..

In. Ukraine,. a. presidential. decree. calling. for. the. creation. of. a. juvenile. justice. system. was. issued. in.
2008. 56.Thus.far,.however,.the.plan.called.for.by.the.decree.has.not.yet.been.finalized.and.adopted..

In.Azerbaijan,.there.is.no.document.containing.a.national.policy.on.juvenile.justice..

2. Law reform
The. need. for. legislation. and. other. legal. standards. specifically. concerning. juvenile. offenders. is.
recognized.by.the.Beijing.Rules,.“Efforts.shall.be.made.to.establish,.in.each.national.jurisdiction,.a.
set.of.laws,.rules.and.provisions.specifically.applicable.to.juvenile.offenders…”57.This.provision.was.
incorporated.into.Article.40(3).of.the.Convention.on.the.Rights.of.the.Child,.which.provides,.“States.
Parties. shall. seek. to. promote. the. establishment. of. laws,. procedures,. authorities. and. institutions.
specifically.applicable.to.children.alleged.as,.accused.of,.or.recognized.as.having.infringed.the.penal.
law…”. The. Committee. on. the. Rights. of. the. Child. has. recognized. the. importance. of. law. reform. in.
establishing.juvenile.justice.systems,.and.has.recommended.that.international.standards.on.juvenile.
justice,.in.particular.the.United.Nations.Rules.for.the.Protection.of.Juveniles.Deprived.of.their.Liberty,.
be.“incorporate[d].….into….national.law.and.regulations.”58

None. of. the. five. countries. have. a. framework. law. on. juvenile. justice.. The. legal. framework. for.
juvenile. justice. must. be. constructed. from. the. relevant. provisions. of. the. criminal. code,. the. code. of.
criminal. procedure,. legislation. on. prisons. and. other. sentences,. such. as. probation,. legislation. on.
administration.offences.and.legislation.on.child.protection..

In. all. of. these. countries,. new. criminal. codes. and. codes. of. criminal. procedure. have. been. adopted.
during.the.last.two.decades..In.Armenia.and.Georgia,.new.codes.on.the.execution.of.sentences.also.
have. been. adopted.. Other. new. legislation. that. affects. juvenile. justice. adopted. during. this. period.
includes.the.Law.on.Probation.and.the.Law.on.Mediation.approved.in.Moldova..

Some. of. this. legislation. led. to. significant. improvements. in. juvenile. justice.. The. Criminal. Code.
adopted.by.Moldova.in.2002,.for.example,.provides.that.prison.sentences.are.no.longer.mandatory.
for. convicted. juveniles. who. are. not. first. offenders,. and. the. new. Code. of. Criminal. Procedure. limits.

54
. National.Plan.for.the.Protection.of.the.Rights.of.the.Child.2004–2015,.UNICEF,.Yerevan,.2005,.p..5.
55
. Ibid.,.pp..16.and.17.
56
. Presidential.Decree.No..411/2008.of.5.May.2008.on.Measures.to.Ensure.Protection.of.Rights.and.Legal.Interests.of.Children..
Para..8(2).mandated.the.Ministry.of.Justice.to.“during.the.first.half.of.2008.develop.a.draft.of.the.National.Programme.of.
Juvenile.Justice.Development.”
57
. United.Nations.Standard.Minimum.Rules.for.the.Administration.of.Juvenile.Justice.(the.Beijing.Rules),.Rule.2.3.
58
. General.Comment.No..10,.CRC/C/GC/10,.supra,.paras..88,.90.and.91.

22


pretrial.detention.to.juveniles.accused.of.a.serious.offence.and.reduces.from.six.to.four.months.the.
length. of. time. a. juvenile. may. be. detained. before. trial.. However,. other. provisions. of. the. new. codes.
made. the. juvenile. justice. system. harsher.. The. new. Moldovan. Criminal. Code,. for. example,. greatly.
expanded.the.number.of.offences.for.which.juveniles.aged.14.or.15.years.could.be.prosecuted,.from.
39.exceptionally.serious.crimes.to.over.100.serious.crimes..It.also.increased.from.10.to.15.years.the.
maximum.sentence.for.many.offences.and.restricted.to.certain.offences.the.discretion.of.the.court.to.
suspend.sentences. 59

It. is. not. easy. to. develop. a. juvenile. justice. system. fully. compatible. with. international. standards.
through. legislation. drafted. primarily. with. adult. offenders. in. mind.. In. particular,. it. is. difficult. to.
identify. all. the. provisions. that. should. be. adapted. or. qualified,. in. order. to. ensure. their. compliance.
with.the.rights.of.children..

The. experience. of. these. countries. provides. examples.. Criminal. codes,. for. example,. often. contain.
provisions.to.the.effect.that.the.commission.of.an.offence.jointly.with.other.persons,.or.victimizing.
a.child,.are.aggravating.factors.that.must.be.taken.into.account.in.sentencing..Committing.offences.
under.the.influence.of.peers.or.adults.should.be.a.mitigating.factor.for.adolescents.as.they.lack.adults’.
capacity.to.resist.such.pressures..Similarly,.when.adolescents.commit.offences.in.which.the.victims.
are.also.adolescents,.the.legal.consequences.should.not.be.the.same.as.when.adults.victimize.a.child..

Insofar. as. criminal. procedures. are. concerned,. the. limits. to. the. duration. of. various. stages. of. legal.
proceedings.are.the.same.for.adults.and.juveniles,.regardless.of.whether.the.suspect/accused.is.at.
liberty.or.in.detention..Even.if.the.law.recognizes.the.general.principle.that.the.detention.of.juveniles.
shall. be. exceptional. and. for. the. shortest. appropriate. period. of. time,. practitioners. (especially.
judges. and. prosecutors). generally. pay. more. attention. to. concrete. rules. than. general. principles..
Since. deprivation. of. liberty. has. a. greater. impact. on. juveniles. than. adults,. most. juveniles. are. not.
autonomous. members. of. society. but. reside. with. their. families,. and. most. offences. committed. by.
juveniles.are.not.difficult.to.investigate,.there.should.be.separate.rules.on.the.duration.of.proceedings.
concerning.juveniles,.especially.when.they.are.deprived.of.liberty..

A.final.example,.concerning.juveniles.serving.sentences:.most.legislation.allows.solitary.confinement.
as.a.disciplinary.measure,.albeit.for.a.shorter.period.than.for.adults..The.United.Nations.Rules.for.the.
Protection.of.Juveniles.Deprived.of.their.Liberty.classifies.solitary.confinement.of.juveniles.as.cruel,.
inhuman.or.degrading.treatment,.and.the.European.Rules.for.juvenile.offenders.subject.to.sanctions.
or.measures.also.bans.solitary.confinement.of.juvenile.prisoners.60

All. of. these. issues. could,. of. course,. be. resolved. by. amending. the. criminal. code,. code. of. criminal.
procedure. or. legislation.on. prisons..The.point.is. that. they.illustrate.how. difficult.it.is. to. bring. such.
codes.completely.into.compliance.with.the.rights.of.children..Experts.in.juvenile.justice.and.juvenile.
corrections.generally.have.a.minor.role.in.the.drafting.of.such.laws..And.once.a.new.criminal.code.
or.code.of.criminal.procedure.has.been.drafted,.or.adopted,.so.much.is.at.stake.that.resistance.may.
be.considerable.to.making.the.amendments.needed.to.ensure.conformity.with.the.rights.of.children..
Furthermore,.when.the.only.legal.standards.concerning.juvenile.justice.are.contained.in.codes.having.
broader.aims.and.application,.it.is.more.difficult.to.develop.a.coherent.legal.framework.covering.all.
aspects.of.juvenile.justice,.from.prevention.to.rehabilitation..

59
. Juvenile Justice in the Republic of Moldova – Evaluation Report 2002–2003,.supra,.p..18,.comparing.Article.43.of.the.old.
Code.with.Article.90.of.the.new.Code.enacted.in.2003,.which.restricted.this.option.to.intentional.offences.punishable.by.
sentences.of.five.years.and.non-intentional.offences.by.sentences.of.up.to.seven.years..
60
. United.Nations.Rules.for.the.Protection.of.Juveniles.Deprived.of.their.Liberty.(Havana.Rules),.Rule.67;.European.Rules.for.
juvenile.offenders.subject.to.sanctions.or.measures,.Rule.95.3.

23

The development of juvenile justice systems in Eastern European neighbourhood policy countries

The development of juvenile justice systems in Eastern European neighbourhood policy countries

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