2. THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• The female gonads, or sexual glands, are the
ovaries; they are the source of ova (eggs) and of
the sex female
hormones estrogens and progestogens. The
fallopian, or uterine, tubes conduct ova to the
uterus, which lies within the lesser or true pelvis.
The uterus connects through the cervical canal
with the vagina. The vagina opens into the
vestibule about which lie the external genitalia,
collectively known as the vulva.
2
5. • The mons pubis is a rounded mound of fatty tissue that
covers the pubic bone. During puberty, it becomes covered
with hair. The mons pubis contains oil-secreting (sebaceous)
glands that release substances that are involved in sexual
attraction (pheromones). The function of the fatty tissue in
the mons pubis is to protect the woman’s pubic area from
bruising during the sex act.
• The labia majora are two elongated, hair-covered, fatty skin
folds that enclose and protect the other organs of the
external female genitalia.
• The labia minora (literally, small lips) can be very small or
up to 2 inches wide. The labia minora lie just inside the
labia majora and surround the openings to the vagina and
urethra. A rich supply of blood vessels gives the labia
minora a pink color. They protect the opening of the vagina
and the urethra (the tube that carries urine from the
bladder to the urethral opening in the vulva). 5
6. • The area between the opening of the vagina and
the anus, below the labia majora, is called the
perineum. It varies in length from almost 1 to
more than 2 inches (2 to 5 centimeters).
6
7. • When stimulated, Bartholin glands (located beside
the vaginal opening) secrete a thick fluid that
supplies lubrication for intercourse.
• The opening to the urethra, which carries urine
from the bladder to the outside, is located
above and in front of the vaginal opening.
• The vestibule is the area between the labia
minora, and consists of the clitoris, urethral
opening and the vaginal opening.
• The clitoris is a short erectile organ at the top
of the vestibule, which has a very rich nerve
supply and blood vessels. Its function is sexual
excitation and it is very sensitive to touch.
7
8. • The urethral opening is the mouth or opening of
the urethra, which is a small tubular structure that
drains urine from the bladder.
• The vaginal opening is the entrance to the vagina.
It is where you will begin to see the ‘presenting
part’ of the baby as it stretches wider open near the
end of labour.
• Perineum and hymen: The skin-covered muscular
area between the vaginal opening and the anus is
called the perineum. It has strong muscles and its own
nerve supply, and it helps to support the contents of
the pelvic cavity. The hymen is a fold of thin vaginal
tissue which partially covers the vaginal entrance in
girls. It can be torn during strenuous exercise, as well
as by the first sexual penetration.
8
10. • The vagina is an elastic, muscular canal
leading from its opening in the vulva to the
neck of the uterus, called the cervix. It is
about 7.5 cm (3.0 in.) long at the front, and
about 9 cm (3.5 in.) long at the back. In the
context of pregnancy and natural (vaginal)
childbirth, the vagina is also referred to as
the birth canal. In addition, it channels the
flow of menstrual blood from the uterus.
10
11. • The uterus (commonly called the womb) is a
pear-shaped, muscular organ that is about
7.6 cm (3 in.) long. It is located above the
vagina and behind the bladder in the center
of the pelvis. The uterus is where a fetus
develops during gestation, and the organ
provides mechanical protection and support
for the developing offspring. Contractions of
the muscular wall of the uterus are
responsible for pushing the fetus out of the
uterus during childbirth.
11
13. The uterus has four major anatomical
divisions,:
• Body: the major portion, which is the upper two-
thirds of the uterus.
• Fundus: the domed area at the top of the uterus,
between the junctions with the two fallopian
tubes.
• Endometrial cavity: the triangular space
between the walls of the uterus.
• Cervix: the narrow neck at the upper end of the
vagina.
13
14. • Tissues of the Uterus
The uterus consists of three tissue layers, called the endometrium,
myometrium, and perimetrium.
• The endometrium is the innermost tissue layer of the uterus. It
consists of epithelial tissue, including mucous membranes. This
layer thickens during each menstrual cycle and, unless an egg is
fertilized, sloughs off during the following menstrual period. If an
egg is fertilized, the thickened endometrium is maintained by
hormones and provides nourishment to the embryo. The placenta is
a temporary organ that consists of a mass of maternal and fetal
blood vessels through which the mother’s and fetus’s blood
exchange substances.
14
15. 15
• The myometrium is the middle layer of the uterus. It consists mostly of a
thick layer of smooth muscle tissue. Powerful contractions of the smooth
muscle allow the uterus to contract and expel an infant during childbirth.
• The perimetrium is the outermost layer of the uterus. It covers the outer
surface of the uterus. This layer actually consists of two layers of
epithelium that secrete fluid into the space between them. The fluid
allows for small movements of the uterus within the pelvis, without
causing it to rub against other organs.
.
17. Fallopian tubes
• The two fallopian tubes, which are about 4 to 5
inches (about 10 to 13 centimeters) long, extend from
the upper edges of the uterus toward the ovaries.
The tubes do not directly connect with the ovaries.
Instead, the end of each tube flares into a funnel
shape with fingerlike extensions (fimbriae). When an
egg is released from an ovary, the fimbriae guide the
egg into the relatively large opening of a fallopian
tube.
• The fallopian tubes are lined with tiny hairlike
projections (cilia). The cilia and the muscles in the
tube's wall propel an egg downward through the
tube to the uterus. The fallopian tube is the usual site
of fertilization of the egg by the sperm.
17
18. Ovaries
• The primary female reproductive organs, or gonads, are
the two ovaries. Each ovary is a solid, ovoid structure
about the size and shape of an almond, about 3.5 cm in
length, 2 cm wide, and 1 cm thick.
• The ovaries are usually pearl-colored, oblong, and about
the size of a walnut. In addition to producing female sex
hormones ( estrogen and progesterone) and male sex
hormones, the ovaries produce and release eggs. The
developing egg cells (oocytes) are contained in fluid-filled
cavities (follicles) in the wall of the ovaries. Each follicle
contains one oocyte.
18
20. Breast Conditions
• Breast cancer: Malignant (cancer) cells multiplying
abnormally in the breast, eventually spreading to the rest of
the body if untreated. Breast cancer occurs almost exclusively
in women, although men can be affected. Signs of breast
cancer include a lump, bloody nipple discharge, or skin
changes.
• Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS): Breast cancer in the duct
cells that has not invaded deeper or spread through the body.
Women diagnosed with DCIS have a high likelihood of being
cured.
• Simple breast cyst: A benign (noncancerous), fluid-filled sac
that commonly develops in women in their 30s or 40s. Breast
cysts may cause tenderness and may be drained.
• Gynecomastia: Overdevelopment of male breasts.
Gynecomastia can affect newborns, boys, and men. 20
21. • Invasive lobular carcinoma: Breast cancer that begins in the milk-
producing lobule cells, but then invades deeper into the breast,
carrying the potential of spreading to the rest of the body
(metastasizing). Invasive lobular carcinoma is an uncommon form
of breast cancer.
• Breast fibroadenoma: A very common noncancerous solid tumor
of the breast. A typical fibroadenoma creates a painless, mobile
lump in the breast and most commonly occurs in women in their
20s or 30s.
• Fibrocystic breast disease: A common condition in which
noncancerous breast lumps may become uncomfortable and
change in size throughout the menstrual cycle. Mastitis:
Inflammation of the breast, causing redness, pain, warmth, and
swelling. Nursing mothers are at higher risk for mastitis, which is
usually the result of infection.
21
22. • Breast calcifications: Calcium deposits in the breast are a common
finding on mammograms. The pattern of calcium might suggest
cancer, leading to further tests or a biopsy.
• Intraductal papilloma: A noncancerous, wart-like breast mass that
grows inside the breast ducts. Intraductal papillomas may be felt
as a lump or cause clear or bloody fluid to leak from the nipple.
• Adenosis of the breast: A noncancerous enlargement of the breast
lobules. Adenosis can look like breast cancer on mammograms, so
a biopsy may be needed to rule out breast cancer.
• Fat necrosis: In response to an injury in the fatty part of the
breast, a lump of scar tissue may develop. This mass can seem like
breast cancer on examination or in mammograms.
22
24. 24
The breast is the tissue overlying the chest (pectoral)
muscles. Women's breasts are made of specialized tissue
that produces milk (glandular tissue) as well as fatty tissue.
The amount of fat determines the size of the breast.
The milk-producing part of the breast is organized into
15 to 20 sections, called lobes. Within each lobe are smaller
structures, called lobules, where milk is produced. The milk
travels through a network of tiny tubes called ducts. The
ducts connect and come together into larger ducts, which
eventually exit the skin in the nipple. The dark area of skin
surrounding the nipple is called the areola.
Connective tissue and ligaments provide support to the
breast and give it its shape. Nerves provide sensation to the
breast. The breast also contains blood vessels, lymph vessels,
and lymph nodes.
25. In women, the breasts overlie the pectoralis major
muscles and usually extend from the level of the
second rib to the level of the sixth rib in the front of
the human rib cage; thus, the breasts cover much of
the chest area and the chest walls. At the front of the
chest, the breast tissue can extend from
the clavicle (collarbone) to the middle of
the sternum (breastbone). At the sides of the chest,
the breast tissue can extend into the axilla (armpit),
and can reach as far to the back as the latissimus
dorsi muscle, extending from the lower back to
the humerus bone (the bone of the upper arm). As
a mammary gland, the breast is composed of
differing layers of tissue, predominantly two
types: adipose tissue; and glandular tissue, which
affects the lactation functions of the breasts. 25
26. 26
Morphologically the breast is tear-shaped. The
superficial tissue layer (superficial fascia) is
separated from the skin by 0.5–2.5 cm of
subcutaneous fat (adipose tissue). The suspensory
Cooper's ligaments are fibrous-tissue prolongations
that radiate from the superficial fascia to the skin
envelope. The female adult breast contains 14–18
irregular lactiferous lobes that converge at the
nipple. The 2.0–4.5 mm milk ducts are immediately
surrounded with dense connective tissue that support
the glands. Milk exits the breast through the nipple,
which is surrounded by a pigmented area of skin
called the areola. The size of the areola can vary
widely among women. The areola contains
modified sweat glands known as Montgomery's
glands. These glands secrete oily fluid that lubricate
and protect the nipple during breastfeeding.
27. 27
The dimensions and weight of the breast vary
widely among women. A small-to-medium-sized
breast weighs 500 grams (1.1 pounds) or less, and
a large breast can weigh approximately 750 to
1,000 grams (1.7 to 2.2 pounds) or more. The
tissue composition ratios of the breast also vary
among women. Some women's breasts have
varying proportions of glandular tissue than of
adipose or connective tissues. The fat-to-
connective-tissue ratio determines the density or
firmness of the breast. During a woman's life, her
breasts change size, shape, and weight due to
hormonal changes during puberty, the menstrual
cycle, pregnancy, breastfeeding, and menopause
28. The structure of the female breast is complex —
including fat, glandular and connective tissue,
as well as lobes, lobules, ducts, lymph nodes,
blood vessels and ligaments.
• Lobules and ducts
Each breast has a number of sections (lobules)
that branch out from the nipple. Each lobule
holds tiny, hollow sacs (alveoli). The lobules are
linked by a network of thin tubes (ducts). If
you're breast-feeding, ducts carry milk from
the alveoli toward the dark area of skin in the
center of the breast (areola). From the areola,
the ducts join together into larger ducts ending
28
29. • Fat, ligaments and connective tissue
Spaces around the lobules and ducts are filled with
fat, ligaments and connective tissue. The amount of
fat in your breasts largely determines their size.
The actual milk-producing structures are nearly the
same in all women. Female breast tissue is
sensitive to cyclic changes in hormone levels. Most
women's breast tissue changes as they age, with
more fat relative to the amount of dense tissue.
• Muscles
The breast has no muscle tissue. Muscles lie
underneath the breasts, however, separating them
29
30. • Arteries and capillaries
Oxygen and nutrients travel to breast tissue
through the blood in your arteries and
capillaries — thin, fragile blood vessels.
• Lymph nodes and lymph ducts
The lymphatic system is a network of lymph nodes
and lymph ducts that helps fight infection. Lymph
nodes — found under the armpit, above the
collarbone, behind the breastbone and in other
parts of the body — trap harmful substances that
might be in the lymphatic system and safely drain
them from the body. 30
32. FUNCTION
Types of Breast Milk
• The first stage of milk that develops during pregnancy is called
colostrum. Thick and yellow in color, colostrum lasts a few days
after the baby is born. This milk is rich in protein, antibodies,
vitamins and minerals.
• Approximately two to four days after the baby is born,
transitional milk replaces colostrum. Transitional milk is thin
and white, and contains high quantities of fat, calories, protein,
lactose and vitamins.
• Approximately 10 to 15 days following baby's birth, the
production of mature milk begins. Mature milk primarily
consists of water, and it often appears bluish in color at the
beginning of the feeding (foremilk), and turns white toward the
end of the feeding (hindmilk) as the milk's fat content increases.
The consumption of hindmilk is essential to ensure the baby is
getting adequate nutrition.
32
33. • The primary function of the breasts, as mammary
glands, is the nourishing of an infant with breast
milk. Milk is produced in milk-secreting cells in the
alveoli. When the breasts are stimulated by the
suckling of her baby, the mother's brain
secretes oxytocin. High levels of oxytocin trigger the
contraction of muscle cells surrounding the alveoli,
causing milk to flow along the ducts that connect the
alveoli to the nipple.
• Full-term newborns have an instinct and a need to
suck on a nipple, and breastfed babies nurse for both
nutrition and for comfort. Breast milk provides all
necessary nutrients for the first six months of life,
and then remains an important source of nutrition,
alongside solid foods, until at least one or two years
33
36. GLOSSARY
• blood–testis barrier tight junctions between Sertoli cells that
prevent bloodborne pathogens from gaining access to later stages of
spermatogenesis and prevent the potential for an autoimmune
reaction to haploid sperm
• bulbourethral glands (also, Cowper’s glands) glands that secrete a
lubricating mucus that cleans and lubricates the urethra prior to and
during ejaculation
• corpus cavernosum either of two columns of erectile tissue in the
penis that fill with blood during an erection corpus spongiosum
(plural = corpora cavernosa) column of erectile tissue in the penis
that fills with blood during an erection and surrounds the penile
urethra on the ventral portion of the penis
36
37. • Ejaculatory duct duct that connects the ampulla of the ductus
deferens with the duct of the seminal vesicle at the prostatic
urethra
• Epididymis (plural = epididymides) coiled tubular structure in
which sperm start to mature and are stored until ejaculation
• Gamete haploid reproductive cell that contributes genetic
material to form an offspring
• Glans penis bulbous end of the penis that contains a large
number of nerve endings
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) hormone released
by the hypothalamus that regulates the production of follicle-
stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the pituitary
gland
• Gonads reproductive organs (testes in men and ovaries in
women) that produce gametes and reproductive hormones
• Inguinal canal opening in abdominal wall that connects the
testes to the abdominal cavity 37
38. 38
• Leydig cells cells between the seminiferous tubules of the testes
that produce testosterone; a type of interstitial cell
• Penis male organ of copulation
• Prepuce (also, foreskin) flap of skin that forms a collar around,
and thus protects and lubricates, the glans penis; also referred as
the foreskin
• Prostate gland doughnut-shaped gland at the base of the bladder
surrounding the urethra and contributing fluid to semen during
ejaculation
• Scrotum external pouch of skin and muscle that houses the
testes
• Semen ejaculatory fluid composed of sperm and secretions from
the seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands
• Seminal vesicle gland that produces seminal fluid, which
contributes to semen
• Seminiferous tubules tube structures within the testes where
39. • Sertoli cells cells that support germ cells through the process of
spermatogenesis; a type of sustentacular cell
• Sperm (also, spermatozoon) male gamete
• Spermatic cord bundle of nerves and blood vessels that supplies
the testes; contains ductus deferens
• Spermatogenesis formation of new sperm, occurs in the
seminiferous tubules of the testes
• Spermatogonia (singular = spermatogonium) diploid precursor
cells that become sperm
• Spermiogenesis transformation of spermatids to spermatozoa
during spermatogenesis
• Testes (singular = testis) male gonads
• ductus deferens (also, vas deferens) duct that transports sperm
from the epididymis through the spermatic cord and into the
ejaculatory duct; also referred as the vas deferens
39
41. 41
STRUCTURE
• The male reproductive system includes the
penis, scrotum, testes, epididymis, vas deferens,
prostate, and seminal vesicles.
• The penis and the urethra are part of
the urinary and reproductive systems.
• The scrotum, testes (testicles), epididymis, vas
deferens, seminal vesicles, and prostate
comprise the rest of the reproductive system.
42. • The penis consists of the root (which is attached
to the lower abdominal structures and pelvic
bones), the visible part of the shaft, and the
glans penis (the cone-shaped end). The opening
of the urethra (the channel that transports
semen and urine) is located at the tip of the
glans penis. The base of the glans penis is called
the corona. In uncircumcised males, the
foreskin (prepuce) extends from the corona to
cover the glans penis.
42
43. 43
• The scrotum is the thick-skinned sac that
surrounds and protects the testes. The
scrotum also acts as a climate-control system
for the testes because they need to be slightly
cooler than body temperature for normal
sperm development. The cremaster muscles in
the wall of the scrotum relax to allow the
testes to hang farther from the body to cool or
contract to pull the testes closer to the body
for warmth or protection.
44. 44
• The testes are oval bodies that average about
1.5 to 3 inches (4 to 7 centimeters) in length and
2 to 3 teaspoons (20 to 25 milliliters) in volume.
Usually the left testis hangs slightly lower than
the right one. The testes have two primary
functions:
• Producing sperm (which carry the man's
genes)
• Producing testosterone (the primary male sex
hormone)
45. 45
• The epididymis consists of a single coiled
microscopic tube that measures almost 20 feet
(6 meters) in length. The epididymis collects
sperm from the testis and provides the
environment for sperm to mature and acquire
the ability to move through the female
reproductive system and fertilize an ovum.
One epididymis lies against each testis.
46. • The vas deferens is a firm tube (the size of a
strand of spaghetti) that transports sperm
from the epididymis. One such duct travels
from each epididymis to the back of the
prostate and joins with one of the two seminal
vesicles. In the scrotum, other structures, such
as muscle fibers, blood vessels, and nerves, also
travel along with each vas deferens and
together form an intertwined structure, the
spermatic cord.
46
47. • The urethra serves a dual function in males.
This channel is the part of the urinary tract
that transports urine from the bladder and the
part of the reproductive system through which
semen is ejaculated.
47
48. • The prostate lies just under the bladder and
surrounds the urethra. Walnut-sized in young
men, the prostate enlarges with age. When the
prostate enlarges too much, it can block urine
flow through the urethra and cause
bothersome urinary symptoms.
48
49. 49
The seminal vesicles, located above the prostate,
join with the vas deferens to form the
ejaculatory ducts, which travel through the
prostate. The prostate and the seminal vesicles
produce fluid that nourishes the sperm. This
fluid provides most of the volume of semen, the
fluid in which the sperm is expelled during
ejaculation. Other fluid that makes up a very
small amount of the semen comes from the vas
deferens and from Cowper glands in the
urethra.
50. FUNCTION
• The organs of the male reproductive system
are specialized for three primary functions: To
produce, maintain, transport, and nourish
sperm (the male reproductive cells), and
protective fluid ( semen ). To discharge sperm
within the female reproductive tract. To
produce and secrete male sex hormones.
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