Evolution of Planning Perspectives: From Mercantilism to Garden Cities

Vinay Prakash Shrivastava
1
Evolution of Planning Perspectives
presentation structured on
notes of Dr. Alka Bharat

1. Evolution of Planning Perspectives
2. Layout Drawings & Concepts
3. Planning as Coordination of Present & Future

3
17TH CENTURY
Mercantilism was the economic philosophy adopted by
merchants and statesmen during the 16th and 17th
centuries. Mercantilists believed that a nation's wealth
came primarily from the accumulation of gold and silver.
Nations without mines could obtain gold and silver only
by selling more goods than they bought from abroad.
Accordingly, the leaders of those
nations intervened extensively in the
market, imposing tariffs on foreign
goods to restrict import trade, and
granting subsidies to improve export
prospects for domestic goods.
Mercantilism represented the
elevation of commercial interests to
the level of national policy.
System Improving
Mercantilism
ECONOMICS

4
1682
Grid system &
neighborhood parks
Pre-Modern
Planning:
Focus on Urban
Design and Street
System
System Improving
Philadelphia
plan
William Penn

5
1695
Radiocentric
Pre-Modern
Planning:
Focus on Urban
Design and Street
System
System Improving
Annapolis
plan
Francis Nicholson

6
EARLY 18TH CENTURY
A group of 18th century French philosophers, developed
the idea of the economy as a circular flow of income
and output. They opposed the Mercantilist policy of
promoting trade at the expense of agriculture because
they believed that agriculture was the sole source of
wealth in an economy.
As a reaction against the
Mercantilists' copious trade
regulations, the Physiocrats
advocated a policy of laissez-
faire, which called for
minimal government
interference in the economy.
System Improving
Physiocrats
ECONOMICS

7
LATE 18TH CENTURY
Began with the publication in 1776 of Adam Smith's
monumental work, The Wealth of Nations. The book
identified land, labor, and capital as the three factors of
production and the major contributors to a nation's wealth.
In Smith's view, the ideal economy is a self-regulating
market system that automatically satisfies the economic
needs of the populace.
He described the market mechanism
as an "invisible hand" that leads all
individuals, in pursuit of their own
self-interests, to produce the greatest
benefit for society as a whole. Smith
incorporated some of the
Physiocrats' ideas, including laissez-
faire, into his own economic
theories, but rejected the idea that
only agriculture was productive.
System Improving
The Classical School
ECONOMICS

8
LATE 18TH CENTURY
Marginalist economists emphasized that
prices also depend upon the level of
demand, which in turn depends upon the
amount of consumer satisfaction provided
by individual goods and services.
AS AGAINST Classical
economists theorized
that prices are
determined by the
costs of production.
System Improving
Marginalist
ECONOMICS

9
1733
Ward park
system
System Improving
Savannah
Oglethorpe

10
1790
Grand, whole
city plan
System Improving
Washington
Pierre
L’Enfant

11
1798
The link between population growth and resources.
Exponantial growth model.
WEIRD IN CONTEXT TO
MODERN WORLD BUT DESIGN
BASIS FOR STATISTICAL
DOCUMENTATION AND
REINFORCEMENT OF
OBSERVATIONS FOR ANALYSIS
IN SOCIOLOGY
based on the demographical
structure,Thomas Robert
Malthus used the idea of
diminishing returns to explain
low living standards.
Population, he argued, tended
to increase
geometrically, outstripping
the production of food, which
increased arithmetically
Critical theory
DEMOGRAPHY
Malthus, T.

12
1826
AGRICULTURE PRODUCE
German landowner in 1800s
All that matters is transport costs~ stress
the distance from the market & the
transport cost
Near to the market (transport costÔ)
Far away from the market (transport
costÓ)
Near to the market (the intensityÓ)
~ There is a negative relationship between
the distance from the market & the
intensity
SPECIFIC TO AGRI BUT WEIRD IN MODERN
DAY IN LIGHT OF TRANSPORTATION.
VALUABLE FOR REALISATION OF COST OF
LAND WRT DIST FROM CENTER
Critical theory
Model
of rural
land use.
von Thünen, H.

13
1852-1870
Model for “City
Beautiful”
Critical theory
Paris
Napoleon III;
Haussmann

14
mid-19th century
The Marxist School challenged the foundations
of Classical theory. Writing during the mid-
19th century, Karl Marx saw capitalism as an
evolutionary phase in economic development.
He believed that capitalism would ultimately
destroy itself and be succeeded by a world
without private property.
Social theory
The Marxist School
Marx

15
1856
First major
parkland
System Improving
Central Park
F L Olmsted
Sr

16
1867
First modern land-use zoning
in US (forbad slaughterhouses
in geographic districts)
New Urban Forms Social mobilization
San Francisco

17
1869
Model curved street
“suburb”
New Urban Forms Critical theory
Riverside, IL
F L Olmsted Sr

18
1876
US Supreme Court
upholds regulation of
private enterprise
New Urban Forms Critical System Improving
“Munn v
Illinois”
F L Olmsted Sr

19
1880
Model industrial town
George Pullman

20
1885
Laws of migration.
Ravenstein, E.

21
1892
First federal action on city
problems
New Urban Norms
Response to the
Emerging Industrial
City: The Public Health
Movement
System Improving
US federal
study of
slums

22
1867/1879
First major tenement
house controls
New Urban Forms System Improving
New York
City

23
1870
-Need for more systematic
and forward-thinking action
New Urban Forms System Improving

24
1888
Promotes city and
national planning
The Rise of a Social
Conscience
System Improving
“Looking
Backwards”
Edward Bellamy

25
1890
Focuses on slums and poverty
The Rise of a Social
Conscience
System Improving
“How the Other
Half Lives” and
“Children of the
Poor”
Jacob Riis

26
Burnham, Olmsted Sr,
Columbian Exposition
City Beautiful
Movement
Social mobilization
The “White
City”
1893

27
Ebenezar Howard
anti-urban, agrarian
Garden City
Movement
Critical theory
“Tomorrow: A
Peaceful Path to
Real Reform”
1898

28
Institutionalist
economists
Institutionalist economists regard individual economic behavior as
part of a larger social pattern influenced by current ways of living
and modes of thought. They rejected the narrow Classical view that
people are primarily motivated by economic self-interest. Opposing
the laissez-faire attitude towards government's role in the
economy, the Institutionalists called for government controls and
social reform to bring about a more equal distribution of income.

29
Letchworth
Welwyn introduces
superblock
Garden City
Movement
Social mobilization
Two garden
city
projects
1903-1920

30
Burnhan & Olmsted Jr
Columbian Exposition
Update of
L’Enfant’s Plan
System Improving
McMillan Plan
for Washington
DC
1902

31
Daniel Burnham
First major
application of City
Beautiful in US
Social mobilization
San Francisco Plan
1906

32
Edward Bennett &
Daniel Burnham
First metro regional plan
“Make no little plans;
they have no magic…”
Social mobilization
1909
Chicago
Plan
1909

33
Stein and Wright
a neighborhood of the
New York City borough of
Queens.
The 77-acre (310,000 m2) low-
rise pedestrian-oriented
development was constructed
between 1924 to 1929.
Social mobilization
plan for
Sunnyside
Gardens,
1923

34
Burgess, E.
LANDUSE WITH CBD CBD, then “zone of transition”
Working-class homes
Middle-class homes
Commuter suburbs
Urban ecology: invasion and succession
specific to settlement location
which depend on the CBD
(SARROUNDING THE CENTRAL
BUSSINES DISTRICT)
Social mobilization
Concentric circle model of
urban land use.
1924

35
Robert E. Park, Ernest W. Burgess, and
Roderick D. McKenzie in The City
a city begins with a business district surrounded by
a transition zone filled with low-income, high-
crime area. Outside of that is a working-class
residential zone, then a middle-class residential
zone, and finally an upper-class residential zone.
Homer Hoyt modified it
in the sector model
Social mobilization
concentric zone model
, bull's eye model
1925

36
Robert Moses : “If the ends don’t justify
the means, then what does?”
•1920s

37
Standard City Planning Enabling Act
issued by US Dept of Commerce
•1928

38
–Completion of Radburn NJ, innovative
neighborhood design based on Howard’s
theory
••1929

39
- Regionalizing/nationalizing of planning
- Focus on econ development &
social policy
Social mobilization
System Improving
- Social science
as a tool of
planning
1928

40
Miller, A.
System of classifying
climate/vegetation regions.
1930

41
Reilly, W.
Law of retail gravitation.
1931

42
German GEOGRAPHER Christaller, W.
To focus on the economic aspects of his theory, Christaller had to create a set of
assumptions. He decided for example that the countryside in the areas he was
studying would be flat, so no barriers would exist to impede people's movement
across it. In addition, two assumptions were made about human behavior: 1)
Christaller stated that humans will always purchase goods from the closest place
that offers the good, and 2) whenever demand for a certain good is high, it will be
offered in close proximity to the population. When demand drops, so too does
the availability of the good.
SPECIFIC TO SERVICE PROVIDE OF THE NEAREST
SUBSERVICE CENTER, WHICH DEPEND ON THE SIZE
OF SERVICE CENTER. spatial theory in urban
geography that attempts to explain the reasons
behind the distribution patterns, size, and number
of cities and towns around the world. It also
attempts to provide a framework by which those
areas can be studied both for historic reasons and
for the locational patterns of areas today.
Social mobilization
Central place theory.
1933

43
John Maynard Keynes in 1936
Reacting to the severity of the worldwide depression, John
Maynard Keynes in 1936 broke from the Classical tradition
with the publication of the General Theory of
Employment, Interest, and Money. The Classical view
assumed that in a recession, wages and prices would
decline to restore full employment. Keynes held that the
opposite was true. Falling prices and wages, by depressing
people's incomes, would prevent a revival of spending. He
insisted that direct government intervention was necessary
to increase total spending.
The Classical view assumed that in a recession, wages and
prices would decline to restore full employment. Keynes
held that the opposite was true. Falling prices and
wages, by depressing people's incomes, would prevent a
revival of spending. He insisted that direct government
intervention was necessary to increase total spending.
General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money
1936

44
Cities as engines of growth
Increasing
Importance of
Cities
Social mobilization
Our Cities: Their
Role in the
National Economy.
•1937

45
Jefferson, M.
MAIN CITY & DEPENDANTS the
primate city is commonly at least
twice as large as the next largest city
and more than twice as significant.
“The second and subsequently smaller
cities represent a proportion of the
largest city”.
Concept of the primate city.
1939

46
Hoyt, H.
Middle class always moves outward
Vacancy chains start
Fastest growing suburbs = poorest inner city
Central activities expand out by sector
High-end housing in attractive sector
Industrial near transportation
Middle-class housing next to high-end
Lower-class housing gets the rest
LANDUSE WITH SECTORS Economic Status displayed via
housing within the urban area
Sector model of urban land use.
1939

47
Local Planning Administration, by
Ladislas Segoe, first of "Green Book"
series
1939

48
Harris, Chauncy and Ullman, E.
Multiple nuclei land use.
Geographers in 1945s
CBD isn’t the only center
Commercial, industrial, port, etc.
“nodes”
Expanding nodes intersect
based on the activities of land use
Classification
of settlement
functions.
1945

49
Post-WWII Modernism
Suburbanization & Central City Decline
1945

50
WALTER FIERY
This theory says that the pre-requisites like the
services, houses etc. may and may not meet the demand of
the human factors. When the systems are running in a
perfect manner, then there is hardly any room for
personalized services; that there is state of “anonymity”. But
everybody wants a little more of his share – which is the
basic human nature.
Geographers in 1945s
CBD isn’t the only center
Commercial, industrial, port, etc.
“nodes”
Expanding nodes intersect
EXPLORATORY
SOCIAL VALUES IN
PLANNING THEORY
1947

51
Zipf, G. 1949 Rank size rule.
Explains the size cities in a country
Critical theory
Second largest town or city is half the
size of the size, the third would be a
third the size etc…. an empirical
law formulated using mathematical
statistics, refers to the fact that many
types of data studied in the physical and
social sciences can be approximated
with a Zipfian distribution, one of a
family of related discrete power law
probability distributions.

52
1950 Social Activism
Federal Policy
Regional Cities
Collaborative planning

53
Urban Renewal and General Planning
- Social science
strengthened &
challenged

54
•1949 Housing Act (Wagner-Ellender-
Taft Bill)
- Planning optimism
- Rise of community voice
& social protest
- Political action for reform
and transformation
Critical theory
–First comprehensive
housing legislation
–Aimed to construct
800,000 housing units
–Inaugurated urban
renewal

55
Murphy, R. and Vance, J. 1950's
Advocacy
planning
Delimiting
the boundary
of the CBD.

56
Auguste Comte 1950's
Descriptive science becomes a tool of normative
planning in striving for a better society. This
approach is evident in the notion of ‘public
interest’, formulated as the goal of rational-
comprehensive planning. Public interest meant
planning solutions that were of common benefit.
By means of scientific analysis the parameters of
such solutions were to be defined: wide roads
without traffic jams
“father of sociology”, Auguste Comte sought to
apply the methods of observation and
experimentation. He believed that persistent
social problems might be solved by the
application of certain hierarchical rules. Comte
was maintained in the rational comprehensive
planning theory that gained ground in the 1950s
and 1960s – the ideas which, to a considerable
degree, are still at the core of urban planning
thought. First and foremost, Comte’s association
of the methods of classical science with the study
of societies and social phenomena is central to
the theory of rational-comprehensive planning.

57
August Losch
1954
German
economist
modified
Christaller's
central place
theory

58
Housing Act of 1954.
–Stressed slum prevention and urban
renewal rather than slum clearance
and urban redevelopment as in the
1949 act.
–stimulated general planning for
cities under 25,000 (Section 701)
–"701 funding" later extended to
foster statewide, interstate, and
substate regional planning.
System Improving

59
Perroux
Growth pole theory (Perroux)
A dynamic and highly integrated set of
industries organized around a propulsive
leading sector or industry ('industrie
motrice').
A growth pole is capable of rapid
growth and of generating growth
through spillover and multiplier
effects in the rest of the economy .The
apparent simplicity of the notion, its
suggestion of dynamism and its ability
to wed problems
Advocacy planning
Growth pole theory
1955

60
Rostow, W.
Growth pole theory (Perroux)
A dynamic and highly
integrated set of industries
organized around a
propulsive leading sector or
industry ('industrie
motrice').
1960

61
Kevin Lynch
Image of the
City –
Urban Design
Theorists
1960

62
LONDON WINGO JR.
The complexity of urban dynamics is complicated by
different temporal rates of change among its main
components. While land use and transportation
networks are very slow to change, their associated
movements can change and adapt very quickly. As a
result, changes in an urban area will range accordingly.
Wingo said that a city is an accumulated demand for
transportation. The trips made from a residential area for
different purposes, are in a limited number compared to
the trips made in a commercial center. Industrial areas
and recreational areas have more trips but there is an
inflated demand for these trips at a particular period of
time. If we can assign certain values of these demands
created by a specific land use and systematically analyze
them, then we can put them together and form a
systematic transportation in the city.
EXPLORATORY
TRANSPORTATION
ORIENTED THEORY
1961

63
Modeling
The urban growth
simulation model
emerges in the Penn-
Jersey Transportation
Study.
1962

64
Paul Davidoff, T A Reiner
“determinations of what serves the public
interest, in a society containing many
diverse interest groups, are almost always
of a highly contentious nature”.
Davidoff claimed that the planner should make clear what
are the values underlying his choices, and indeed he
should do more: “he should affirm them; he should be an
advocate of what he deems proper”. Davidoff argued that
public sector planning needed genuine alternatives based
on different value .Davidoff’s model of advocacy planning
was perhaps better suited to the context of the
USA, where local governments have less autonomy and
authority in the face of private sector interests (especially
business) than in most European countries.
EXPLORATORY
Choice Theory Of
Planning
1962

65
Kansky, K.
Factors influencing
the development
of transport
networks.
1963

66
Taaffe, E., Morrill, R. and Gould, P.
Model of transport
network evolution
in developing
countries.
1963

67
Alonso
1964
Each household represents a
balance between land, goods,
and accessibility to the
workplace.
The assumptions on which
this theory rests range from
all land being of equal quality
to lack of planning
constraints. This means that
the theory is a long way from
reality, although it does
reflect some aspects of urban
morphology.
Urban land use is based on
the work of Alonso (1964)
and Muth (1969): Bid Rent
and Location Gradients:
patterns of land use are
determined by land values
that are, in turn, related to
transportation costs. We will
find that each type of urban
activity will have its own bid
rent function and the
combination of several bid
rent functions will define the
rent gradient.
W. Alonso's (1964) explanation of urban land use and
land values. It is grounded on the concept of bid
rents whereby the urban land user seeks central
locations, but is willing to accept a location further
from the city centre if rents are lower in
compensation. The use that can extract the greatest
return from a site will be the successful bidder. To
this basis, Alonso, in a study of housing, added the
quantity of land required, and variations in the
amount of disposable income used on land and
transport costs on one hand, and on all goods and
services on the other. If the amount of goods and
services is held constant, the price of land should
decrease with increasing distance from the centre.
The well-off will choose to live at lower densities at
the edge of the city; the poor remain in high density
occupancy near the city centre. The quantity of land
that may be bought should increase with distance
from the centre, but commuting costs will rise with
distance from the centre so that the quantity of
wealth available for land will decrease. Each
household represents a balance between land,
goods, and accessibility to the workplace.

68
•1964 T.J. Kent publishes
The Urban General Plan.
aesthetics and form
•aesthetics and form
–rejected historic precedent as a source
of architectural inspiration
–considered function as the prime
generator of form
–employed materials and technology in
an honest way.
Modernism
–style-free plan
–universal space
–walls freed from the function of load
bearing
–cantilevers
–glass at corners of buildings
use of concrete

69
Charles E. Lindblom 1965
a method of bargaining and
compromise-seeking between the
interest groups concerned with a
planning issue.
Charles E. Lindblom, in his book “The Intelligence
of Democracy” presented theory of “partisan
mutual adjustment” as a model of decision-
making in public planning. Similarly to Davidoff,
Lindblom sought to bring pluralism to the realm
of public planning. But Lindblom’s theory can be
seen as more advanced in the sense that he was
not only concerned with how to bring the
interests of different groups into the agenda of
public planning, but, furthermore, how
agreement could be reached between these
diverse and conflicting adjustment”
1963

70
Boserup, E.
Theory about the
link between
population growth
and resources.
1965

71
J.R. Boudeville 1966
He also pointed to the regionally
differentiated growth that such a
spatial strategy might generate. The
precise meaning of the term 'growth
pole' is difficult to pin down,
however, because it is frequently used
in a far looser fashion to denote any
(planned) spatial clustering of
economic activity.
Theory was translated into spatial
terms by J.R. Boudeville (1966). On
the bases of external economies and
economies of
agglomeration, Boudeville argued that
the set of industries forming the
growth pole (or 'pole de croissance')
might be clustered spatially and linked
to an existing urban area.

72
•1968 Pittsburg Community
Redevelopment Model
Social mobilization

73
McCarty, H. and Lindberg, L.
The optima and
limits model of
agricultural
production.
1966

74
Guttenberg
Accessibility
Emphasis
Theory
1968

75
Smith, D.
Maximum
profit model of
industrial
location.
1971

76
Haggett, P.
Deviations from
a straight course
by transport
routes.
1969 & 1977

77
Carson, M. and Kirkby, M.
Classification
of mass
movements.
1972

78
Privatisation
1980 - Post-modern critique of
rationality
- Segmentation of voices of communities
into communities with voice

79
Brandt, W.
1980 & 1983
Findings and suggestions of the 'Brandt
Commission'.
Kearsley
1983
Model of urban structure.
Barke, M. and
O'Hare, G.
1984
Model of economic development in
developing countries. - Focus on
interaction, communication, process

How a common man looks at Urban Planning ?
– Common Man looks at it in a much
simple, point to point, rather than issues as a
matrix of the system. As it was in much early
days of Urban Planning. The review of those
concepts as ‘Few important concepts of Early
Urban Planning.’

Few important concepts of Early Urban Planning
PHYSICAL PLEASANCE & COMFORT

FORMULATION OF LAYOUT

The Linear City Movement
The linear city was an urban plan for an elongated urban formation.
The city would consist of a series of functionally specialized parallel sectors.
Generally, the city would run parallel to a river and be built so that the dominant
wind would blow from the residential areas to the industrial strip.
The sectors of a linear city would be:
1. a purely segregated zone for railway lines,
2. a zone of production and communal enterprises, with related scientific, technical
and educational institutions,
3. a green belt or buffer zone with major highway,
4. a residential zone, including a band of social institutions, a band of residential
buildings and a "children's band",
5. a park zone, and
6. An agricultural zone with gardens and state-run farms
As the city expanded, additional sectors would be added to the end of each band, so
that the city would become ever longer, without growing wider.

CITY COORDINATIONS

FORMULATION OF FUNCTIONAL LAYOUT

Daniel Burnham
The City Beautiful Movement
Ebenezer Howard and
the Garden City Movement

FORMULATION OF LAYOUT WITH ZONES

The Garden City Physical Form
FORMULATION IN GRADES

Raymond Unwin
Garden Cities in Europe & America

• The Impact of WW I on British
Housing & Housing Policy
• A.D. Sanderson Furniss and Marion
Phillips Housing Program for
Working Women
• “Modern Housing” in Europe
• Catherine Bauer visits Europe...
Women and Housing In Europe

• Modern Housing
• Origins of American Housing Policy
Catherine Bauer

• The Origins of
Sustainable Urban
Development
• Louis Mumford and
Geddes
Patrick Geddes

• The Barlow Commission and
WW II
• The Plan for Greater London
and Britain’s New Towns
Program
Wartime and Post-War British Planning: Patrick Abercrombie

97
VanThunen
(1783 – 1850) Theory
Based on the data of his experience of
farming and classical economic theory
It’s a partial equilibrium approach for a
deterministic and normative agricultural
production
How & why agricultural landuse varies
with distance from the market
Model I – INTENSITY OF PRODUCTION
DECREASES WITH DISTANCE FROM
MARKET.
INTENSITY OF PRODUCTION – AMOUNT OF THE
INPUTS (MONEY LABOUR WATER ETC.) PER UNIT
LAND.
Model II – THE TYPE OF LANDUSE VARIES
WITH THE DISTANCE FROM THE MARKET.
ASSUMPTIONS TO SIMPLIFY THE REAL
WORLD SITUATION.
Few important concepts of Urban Planning

98
The basic principle is economic rent
(locational rent = LR) .
LR = Y (m-c) –Y td
Y = yield per unit land
m = market price per unit of product
c = production cost per unit of product
d = distance from per unit of land
VanThunen

99
Van Thunen (1783 – 1850) Theory
Model I – INTENSITY THEORY
INTENSITY OF PRODUCTION DECREASES
WITH DISTANCE FROM MARKET.
INTENSITY OF PRODUCTION – AMOUNT OF
THE INPUTS (MONEY LABOUR WATER ETC.)
PER UNIT LAND.
VanThunen

100
Van Thunen (1783 – 1850) Theory
Model II – THE TYPE OF LANDUSE VARIES
WITH THE DISTANCE FROM THE MARKET.
VanThunen

101
Alfred Weber formulated a least cost theory of
industrial location which tries to explain and
predict the location pattern of the industry at a
macro-scale. It emphasizes that firms seek a
site of minimum transport and labour cost.
The point for locating an industry that
minimizes costs of transportation and labor
requires analysis of three factors: Material
Index, Labor & Agglomeration and de
agglomeration
AlfredWeber

Park and Burgess (1925) developed a theory of urban ecology which proposed
that cities are environments like those found in nature,
governed by many of the same forces of Darwinian
evolution, i.e. competition, that affects natural
ecosystems. When a city is formed and grows, people
and their activities cluster in a particular area, i.e. the
process of "concentration". Gradually, this central area becomes highly
populated, so there is a scattering of people and their activities away from the central city to establish the
suburbs, i.e. "dispersion". They suggested that, over time, the competition for land and other scarce urban
resources leads to the division of the urban space into distinctive ecological niches, "natural areas" or zones
in which people share similar social characteristics because they are subject to the same ecological
pressures. As a zone becomes more prosperous and "desirable", property values and rents rise, and people
and businesses migrate into that zone, usually moving outward from the city centre in a process Park and
Burgess called "succession" (a term borrowed from plant ecology) and new residents
take their place. At both a micro and macro level, society was
thought to operate as a superorganism, where change is a
natural aspect of the process of growth and neither chaotic nor
disorderly. Thus, an organised area is invaded by new elements. This gives rise to
local competition and there will either be succession or an accommodation which results in a
reorganisation. But, during the early stages of competition, there will always be some level of
disorganisation because there will be disruption to, or a breakdown in, the normative structure
of the community which may or may not lead to deviant behaviour. Thus, although a city was a
physical organisation, it also had also social and moral structures that could be disorganised.
102
Burgess

Their model, known as Concentric Zone
Theory and first published in The City (1925) predicted
that, once fully grown, cities would take the form of five
concentric rings with areas of social and physical deterioration
concentrated near the city centre and more prosperous areas
located near the city's edge. This theory seeks to explain the
existence of social problems such as unemployment and
crime in specific Chicago districts, making extensive use
of synchronic mapping to reveal the spatial
distribution of social problems and to permit
comparison between areas. In the post-war
period, the cartographic approach was criticised as simplistic
in that it neglected the social and cultural dimensions of
urban life, the political and economic impact of
industrialisation on urban geography, and the issues of
class, race, gender, and ethnicity.
103
Burgess

Geddes shared the belief with Alejandro Reinosa that
social processes and spatial form are related.
Therefore, by changing the spatial form it
was possible to change the social
structure as well. This was particularly important
in the late 19th and early 20th century when
industrialization was dramatically altering the conditions
of life.
Geddes demonstrated this theory through his work in
Edinburgh's Old Town. Here, in this most dilapidated
area, he used associations with prominent thinkers who
lived there in the 18th and 19th century (like Adam
Smith), to establish residential halls. The building in
question is still part of the University of Edinburgh
complex. Here he situated his famous Outlook Tower, a
museum of local, regional, Scottish, and world history.
104
Geddes

Geddes ideas on Regional
Planning - Regional
Planning and Design with
Nature
The Origins of
Sustainable Urban
Development
105
Geddes

In his influential book The City in History, which won the
National Book Award, Mumford explores the development of
urban civilizations. Harshly critical of urban sprawl, Mumford
argues that the structure of modern cities is partially
responsible for many social problems seen in western society.
While pessimistic in tone, Mumford argues that urban
planning should emphasize an organic relationship between
people and their living spaces.
Mumford uses the example of the medieval city as the basis
for the "ideal city," and claims that the modern city is too
close to the Roman city (the sprawling megalopolis) which
ended in collapse; if the modern city carries on in the same
vein, Mumford argues, then it will meet the same fate as the
Roman city.
"The physical design of cities and their economic functions
are secondary to their relationship to the national
environment and to the spiritual values of human
community." 106
Mumford

Gravity Model The relative strength of a bond
between two places is determined by multiplying
the population of city A by the population of city B
and then dividing the product by the distance
between the two cities squared. The gravity
model, as social scientists refer to the modified
law of gravitation, takes into account the
population size of two places and their distance.
Since larger places attract people, ideas, and
commodities more than smaller places and places
closer together have a greater attraction, the
gravity model incorporates these two features.
107
GravityModel

Stakeholder in 20th Century
UrbanPlanning

Planning has an
integrated social
backdrop
110
UrbanPlanning

111
• PARENTS BROTHERS
SISTERS
• RELATIVES
• FAMILY
• ENVIRONMENT
• NEEDS
CLOSE RELATIONS
• FRIENDS
• DAILY
INTERACTIONS
• ENVIRONMENT
• ATTRACTIONS
INSTITUTE AND CLUBS
• SCHOOL
• SOCIAL ACTIVITIES
• MEDIA CINEMA
MUSIC
• INTERNET
• ENVIRONMENT
• AMBITION
Social Structure of Settlements
Self-
actualization
Physiological
needs
Safety
needs
Love
and
belonging
Esteem
FIVE BASIC NEEDS
OF A MAN –
MASLOW'S
HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS
FOOD SHELTER BELONGING RESPECT
INFLUENCE
ENVIRONMENT
OF
DEEDS

Sociology
112
Sociology is the study of human societies.
It is a social science (with which it is informally
synonymous) that uses various methods of empirical
investigation and critical analysis to develop and refine a
body of knowledge and theory about human social activity,
often with the goal of applying such knowledge to the
pursuit of social welfare.
Subject matter ranges from
the micro level of agency and interaction
to the macro level of systems and social structures.
FAMILY
•PARENTS
BROTHERS
SISTERS
•RELATIVES
CLOSE
RELATIONS
•FRIENDS
•DAILY
INTERACTIONS
INSTITUTE AND
CLUBS
•SCHOOL
•SOCIAL
ACTIVITIES
SOCIAL
BEHAVIOUR

SOCIAL STRUCTURE
113
ORIENTATIONS
NATION & REGION
COMMUNITY,
ASSOCIATIONS, GROUPS
(WORKPLACE & RESIDENCE
& IDEOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATIONS)
FUTURE
PERSPECTIVE
(CAREER,
DEPENDANCY &
ORIENTATIONS
OF PLACEMENTS)

Sociology is both topically and
methodologically a very broad discipline. Its
traditional focuses have included
social stratification (i.e.,
class relations),
religion, secularization,
modernity,
culture and
deviance
114

115
(1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with
symbols, and to act imaginatively and creatively; and
(2) the distinct ways that people living in different parts of the world
classified and represented their experiences, and acted creatively.
Cities have historically been the driver of culture.
Most cultural institutions throughout the world are located in central cities.
Culture

Social classes are the hierarchical
arrangements of people in society
as economic or cultural groups.
Class is an essential object of analysis for
sociologists, anthropologists, political economists
and social historians. In the social sciences, social
class is often discussed in terms of 'social
stratification'.
In sociology and political philosophy,
the most basic class distinction is
between the powerful and the
powerless.
In Marxist theory and historical materialism, social
class is caused by the fundamental economic
structure of work and property.
116

In sociology and other social sciences, social
stratification refers to the hierarchical
arrangement of individuals into divisions of power
and wealth within a society. The term most
commonly relates to the socio-economic concept of
class, involving the "classification of persons into
groups based on shared socio-economic conditions
... a relational set of inequalities with economic,
social, political and ideological dimensions.“
The term stratification derives from the geological concept of strata - rock layers
created by natural processes. In modern Western societies, stratification is
typically described as a composition of three main layers: upper class, middle
class, and lower class. Each class may be further subdivided into smaller classes
(eg. occupational).[2] These categories are particular to state-level societies as
distinguished from, for instance, feudal societies composed of nobility-to-peasant
relations. It is debatable whether the earliest hunter-gatherer groups may be
defined as 'stratified', or if such differentials began with agriculture and broad acts
of exchange between groups. To this extent social stratification may start with
society itself, and vice versa.
117

ISSUES
POVERTY
POPULATION EXPLOSION
URBANIZATION
UNEMPLOYMENT & YOUTH UNREST
ILLITERACY
COMMUNALISM & REGIONALISATION
BACKWARD CLASSES
CHILD ABUSE & CHILD LABOUR
DOWNTRODDEN WOMEN
CORRUPTION
TERRORISM … SO ON
118

119
The easiest route to understand
stakeholder is to start with Marxist
philosophy

Marxist philosophy or Marxist theory are terms that cover work
in philosophy that is strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist
approach to theory or that is written by Marxists. It may be
broadly divided into Western Marxism, which drew out of various
sources, and the official philosophy in the Soviet Union, which
enforced a rigid reading of Marx called "diamat" (for "dialectical
materialism"), in particular during the 1930s.
The phrase "Marxist philosophy" itself does not indicate a strictly
defined sub-field of philosophy, because the diverse influence of
Marxist theory has extended into fields as diverse as aesthetics,
ethics, ontology, epistemology, and philosophy of science, as well
as its obvious influence on political philosophy and the philosophy
of history.
The key characteristics of Marxism in philosophy are
its materialism and its commitment to political
practice as the end goal of all thought.
Louis Althusser, for example, defined philosophy as "class struggle in
theory", thus radically disjoining himself from those who claimed
philosophers could adopt a "God's eye view" as a purely neutral judge. Just
as the young Marx had left university and German Idealism to encounter
the proletariat, which permitted him to modify his perspective on practice
and theory, "intellectuals" couldn't content themselves with instructing
from their chairs the masses (as the "organic intellectual" conception
denounced by Antonio Gramsci) but had themselves to take part in the
social struggles of their times. 120
Marx

Historical materialism is a methodological
approach to the study of
society, economics, and history, first
articulated by Karl Marx (1818-1883). Marx
himself never used the term but referred to
his approach as "the materialist conception
of history."
Historical materialism looks for the
causes of developments and changes
in human society in the means by
which humans collectively produce
the necessities of life.
The non-economic features of a society (e.g. social
classes, political structures, ideologies) are seen as being an
outgrowth of its economic activity. The classic brief statement of
the theory was made by Marx in the Preface to A Contribution to
the Critique of Political Economy (1859):
121
Marx

“ My inquiry led me to the conclusion that
neither legal relations nor political forms
could be comprehended whether by
themselves or on the basis of a so-called
general development of the human mind,
but that on the contrary they originate in
the material conditions of life,
the totality of which Hegel, following the example of
English and French thinkers of the eighteenth century,
embraces within the term "civil society"; that the
autonomy of this civil society, however, has to be sought in
political economy. The study of this, which I began in Paris,
I continued in Brussels, where I moved owing to an
expulsion order issued by M. Guizot. The general
conclusion at which I arrived and which, once reached,
became the guiding principle of my studies can be
summarised as follows: next slide please
122
Marx

In the social production of their existence, men
inevitably enter into definite relations, which are
independent of their will, namely relations of
production appropriate to a given stage in the
development of their material forces of production.
The totality of these relations of production
constitutes the economic structure of society, the
real foundation, on which arises a legal and political
superstructure, and to which correspond definite
forms of consciousness.
The mode of production of material life
conditions the general process of social,
political, and intellectual life.
It is not the consciousness of men that determines their
existence, but their social existence that determines their
consciousness. At a certain stage of development, the material
productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing
relations of production or — this merely expresses the same thing
in legal terms — with the property relations within the framework
of which they have operated hitherto. From forms of
development, of the productive forces, these relations turn into
their fetters.
123
Marx

124
Marx Then begins an era of social revolution.
The changes in the economic foundation lead, sooner or
later, to the transformation of the
whole, immense, superstructure.
In studying such transformations, it is always
necessary to distinguish between the material
transformation of the economic conditions of
production, which can be determined with the
precision of natural science, and
the
legal, political, religious, artistic,
or philosophic — in short, ideological
forms in which men become conscious of this
conflict and fight it out.
Just as one does not judge an individual by what he thinks
about himself, so one cannot judge such a period of
transformation by its consciousness, but, on the
contrary, this consciousness must be explained from the
contradictions of material life, from the conflict existing
between the social forces of production and the relations

RURAL URBAN EQUATIONS
125
person person
Growth of Urban Centers.
system
system
RURAL EQUATION
URBAN EQUATION
Infrastr
ucture
pressures
DENSITY
REGION

Cities generally have advanced systems for
sanitation, utilities, land
usage, housing, and transportation. The
concentration of development greatly
facilitates interaction between people and
businesses, benefiting both parties in the
process. A big city, or metropolis, usually
has associated suburbs. Such cities are usually
associated with metropolitan areas and urban
sprawl, creating numerous business commuters
traveling to urban centers of employment. Once a
city sprawls far enough to reach another city, this
region can be deemed a conurbation or
megalopolis.
126
cities

127
It wasn't until the 1920s that modernism began to surface. Based
on the ideas of Le Corbusier and utilising new
skyscraper building techniques, the
modernist city stood for the elimination of
disorder, congestion and the small scale,
replacing them instead with preplanned and
widely spaced freeways and tower blocks set
within gardens. There were plans for large scale rebuilding
of cities, such as the Plan Voisin (based on Le Corbusier's Ville
Contemporaine), which proposed clearing and rebuilding most of
central Paris. No large-scale plans were implemented until after
World War II however. Throughout the late 1940s and 1950s,
housing shortages caused by wartime destruction led many cities to
subsidize housing blocks. Planners used the opportunity to
implement the modernist ideal of towers surrounded by gardens.
The most prominent example of an entire modernist city is Brasilia,
constructed between 1956 and 1960 in Brazil.
modernism

128
ADVOCATING GOOD AS NEW ;
By the late 1960s and early
1970s, many planners realized
that modernism's clean lines and
lack of human scale also sapped
vitality from the community. The
symptoms were high crime rates
and social problems
modernism

129
fabric
The composite
demographics of an
area, its ethnic
composition, wealth,
education,
employment rate and
regional values.

• From Municipal Health to Environmental Justice
• From the Linear City Transit Oriented Development
• The Enduring City Beautiful
• Garden Cities for Today
• Geddes & Mumford: Design with Nature and the New Regionalism
• Post-Modern Housing and the New Urbanism
Rise of Urban Centres.
Growth of Urban Centres.

131
Planning as Consensus Seeking
John Forester makes a crucial distinction between two
dimensions of planning problems. The first dimension, with
which Lindblom was concerned, is uncertainty: the lack of
information of the planned object in its present and some
future state, and the lack of time and resources for the rational
programming of planning work. This is the technical dimension
of planning. But there is also the political dimension that
concerns the legitimacy of the ends and means of planning.

132
Planning as Consensus Seeking
There is also the political dimension that concerns
the legitimacy of the ends and means of planning.
Problems of legitimacy in planning have to do with
ambiguity, according to Forester. Facing uncertainty,
the planner is in need for more information; facing
ambiguity, he is in need of practical judgment.

133
Planning as Management Of Conflicts
The possibility of communicative rationality is based on the
assertion that a shared context of life worldly values and
understandings is achievable as soon as each participant
withdraws from the use of power. There is a good case for a
counterargument that in the present world we lead our lives in
a society too differentiated into subcultures that a shared life
world is no longer readily

Stakeholder in 21st Century
UrbanPlanning

136
Growth of Urban Centers.
Natural growth results from an
excess of births over deaths
within a city; this is growth
caused by the natural
reproduction of the city's
residents. Net migration
produces urban growth when
migration into the city exceeds
migration out of the city. Migrants
into a city usually share the same
nationality as their urban-born
counterparts and originate from
the country's rural areas. Many
things attract these people to the
city: most importantly, they may
need to escape a rural
environment increasingly
incapable of sustaining them, and
they may be attracted of by an
urban environment that seems to
offer a better standard living.

REGIONS
137
Regions can be defined by physical characteristics, human
characteristics, and functional characteristics. As a way of
describing spatial areas, the concept of regions is important and
widely used among the many branches of geography, each of
which can describe areas in regional terms. For example,
ecoregion is a term used in environmental geography, cultural
region in cultural geography, bioregion in biogeography, and so
on. The field of geography that studies regions themselves is
called regional geography.
Regions defined based on landform characteristics are called
"physiographic" or "geomorphic" regions.
A functional region or Nodal region, is a
region that has a defined core that retains
a specific characteristic that diminishes
outwards. To be considered a Functional
region, at least one form of spatial interaction
must occur between the center and all other
parts of the region. A functional region is
organized around a node or focal point with the
surrounding areas linked to that node by
transportation systems, communication
systems, or other economic association
involving such activities as manufacturing and
retail trading.
In politics, regionalism is a political
ideology that focuses on the
interests of a particular region or
group of regions, whether
traditional or formal
(administrative divisions, country
subdivisions, political divisions,
subnational units). Regionalism
centers on increasing the region's
influence and political power,
either through movements for
limited form of autonomy
(devolution, states' rights,
decentralization) or through
stronger measures for a greater
degree of autonomy (sovereignty,
separatism, independence).
Regionalists often favor loose
federations or confederations over
a unitary state with a strong
central government. Regionalism
may be contrasted with
nationalism.

138
Urban, city, and town
planning integrates land use
planning and transport
planning to improve the built
and social environments of
communities.
Regional planning deals with a
still larger environment, at a
less detailed level.
Regionalplanning

139
Regionalisation is the tendency to form
regions, or the process of doing so.
Regionalisation can be observed in various disciplines:
In geography, it is the process of delineating the Earth into
regions.
In globalization discourse, it represents a world that becomes less
interconnected, with a stronger regional focus.
In politics, it is the process of dividing a political entity or country
into smaller jurisdictions (administrative divisions or subnational
units) and transferring power from the central government to the
regions; the opposite of unitarisation.
In sport, it is when a team has multiple "home" venues in
different cities. Examples of regionalised teams include a few teams
in the defunct American Basketball Association, or the Green Bay
Packers when they played in both Green Bay and Milwaukee.
In linguistics, it is when a prestige language adopts features of a
regional language, such as how, in medieval times, Church Latin
developed regional pronunciation differences in
Italy, France, Spain, and England.
Regionalisation

The goal of socioeconomic study is
generally to bring about socioeconomic
development, usually in terms of
improvements in metrics such as
GDP, life
expectancy, literacy, lev
els of employment, etc
Although harder to measure, changes in
less-tangible factors are also
considered, such as personal
dignity, freedom of
association, personal safety and
freedom from fear of physical
harm, and the extent of participation
in
140
socioeconomicstudy

141
Urbanisation
is the physical growth of
urban areas as a result of
global change.
Urbanization is also defined by the
United Nations as movement of
people from rural to urban areas with
population growth equating to urban
migration.
urbanisation

Urbanism is a focus on cities and urban
areas, their geography, economies,
politics, social characteristics, as well as
the effects on, and caused by, the built
environment.
Urbanism is distinct from new urbanism in that it shies away
from greenfield development in favor of revitalizing existing
urban areas.
The of urbanism posits that traditional cities are vitally
important to society. Cities or other dense human settlements
are said to serve a variety of important functions.
142
urbanism

Urbanism is a focus on cities and urban areas,
their geography, economies, politics, social
characteristics, as well as the effects on, and
caused by, the built environment. Urbanism is
distinct from new urbanism in that it shies away from
greenfield development in favor of revitalizing existing urban
areas. Urbanism as a philosophy
The of urbanism posits that traditional cities are vitally
important to society. Cities or other dense human
settlements are said to serve a variety of important
functions.
143
region

144
Planning
• Ensure proper utilization of land in the interest of the residents of the area
• Provision of an efficient traffic and transportation network
• Make provisions for civic amenities and social facilities to cater to the
present and future needs of the residents community
• Reserve sites for public utilities, transport and other services to meet
present as well as future requirements of the area
• Preserve buildings and areas of historical, religious and cultural significance
• Improve existing living conditions, physical quality of life, and guide future
development.
planning

145
Aspects of planning
1. Urban Aesthetics
2. Safety
3. Slums
4. Urban Decay
5. Reconstruction & Renewal
6. Transport
planning

Development is index of our pursuit for comfort and
has thus become index of sellable comfort in modern times
and is challenging sustainability through consumption of
natural resources and damage to the delicate balance of
Environment through multiple means. When Planners talk
about Urban issues, they mention forces in the system of a
settlement and public habits and prescribe step by step
evolution of corrections in the settlements rather than one
time ready to use designs .
146
The context is development as a consequence.

147
CoSGOP is not a planning method but a process
model. It provides a framework for
communication and joint decision-making
in a structured process characterised by
feed-back loops and it facilitates a learning
process of all the stakeholders involved.
The essential elements of CoSGOP are : Analysis of stakeholders
(This is oriented towards identifying stakeholders’ perception of
problems and their interest and expectations);Analysis of
problems and potentials (This analysis does not only include an
overview over objective problems but also of problems and
potentials as perceived by stakeholders);Development of goals,
improvement priorities and alternatives (The definition of goals,
objectives for development requires intensive communication and
an active participation of the concerned
stakeholders);Specification of an improvement programme and
main activities
CollaborativeStrategicGoal
OrientedProgramming

RURAL AREA
TRANSITION
PHASE
URBAN AREA
148
sustainabledevelopment
NEEDS
RESOURCES
CONSUMPTION
LOSS

Agenda 21
149
The Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems of today and
also aims at preparing the world for the challenges of the next
century. Integration of environment and development concerns
and greater attention to problems will lead to fulfillment of basic
needs, improved living standards for all, better protected and
managed ecosystems and a safer, more prosperous future.
However, successful implementation is first and foremost the
responsibility of Governments, also, national strategies, plans,
policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. (United
Nations Division for Sustainable Development, 1999)
Nongkhai, located in North-East Thailand, used Local Agenda 21
to create a community-based land-use planning and
management process. The community, in partnership with local
government and other agencies developed and adopted the land
use plans. Nongkhai's communities initiated the bottom-up
planning approach as a result of community problems and the
desire to impart local cultural and social structure to the local
government. Representatives from local government and the
community formed a Project Team to tackle pressing land use
concerns. As a result, community workshops were held and land
use plans developed and integrated into community
development plans.

The Kyoto
mechanisms are:
Emissions trading –
known as “the carbon market"
Clean development mechanism (CDM)
Joint implementation (JI).
Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked
to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto
Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37
industrialized countries and the European
community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions .These amount to an average of five per
cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period
2008-2012.
150

CARBON BUDGETING
The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by
which carbon is exchanged among the
biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrospher
e, and atmosphere of the Earth.
The cycle is usually thought of as four major
reservoirs of carbon interconnected by
pathways of exchange.
151

CARBON foot printing
The Ecological Footprint has emerged as the world’s premier
measure of humanity’s demand on nature. It measures how much
land and water area a human population requires to produce the
resource it consumes and to absorb its wastes, using prevailing
technology.
The carbon footprint is a measure of the exclusive total amount of
carbon dioxide emissions that is directly and indirectly caused by
an activity or is accumulated over the life stages of a product."
152

Quantitative Ecology
measure the variability present in the natural world and to understand the causes of
that variability. However, the spatial and temporal pattern in which nature varies can
affect both our ability to measure a particular phenomenon and our perception of its
causes, and it is for this reason that the concept of ‘‘scale’’ is important.
Consider, first, the issue of measurement. A trivial
example illustrates the problem. If one desires to
measure a representative air temperature for a
site, one must be aware that there are both daily and
seasonal fluctuations. Measurements made solely at
night in January or at noon in July would not be
accurate predictors of the temperature for a time
chosen at random. Knowledge of the major temporal
scales of variation in temperature (in this case, scales
of one day and one year)
153

Sustainable Development
"Development which meets the needs and
aspirations of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs“ (The Bruntland
Report, 1987)
Most societies want to achieve
economic development to secure
higher standards of living, now and for
future generations. They also seek to
protect and enhance their
environment, now and for their
children. Sustainable development
tries to reconcile these two objectives.
154

155
sustainabledevelopment
Some planners say that modern
lifestyles use too many
natural resources, polluting
or destroying ecosystems,
increasing social inequality
overheating urban heat
islands, and causing climate
changes. Many urban planners
therefore advocate sustainable cities.

A CONCIOUS DEVELOPMENT
THROUGH PLANNING
156
THANK YOU
However, sustainable development is a recent, controversial
concept – where development comes with momentum of
‘consumption and better needs’.

Evolution of Planning Perspectives: From Mercantilism to Garden Cities

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