1. CHAPTER 4: BEACH PROCESSES
AND COASTAL MANAGEMENT
DR. MOHSIN SIDDIQUE
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
1
0401444 - Intro. To Coastal Eng.
University of Sharjah
Dept. of Civil and Env. Engg.

2. 2
BEACH PROCESSES
Sediment erosion, accretion and equilibrium
Coastal developments can affect coastal zone processes by changing the
rate and/or characteristics of sediment supplied/move to/along the coast
e.g: Dams may cut the supply of sediment to coast;
Natural movement of sediment may be obstructed by coastal structures
Shore response to a shore-parallel
offshore structure
Shore response to placement of a shore-
perpendicular structure

3. 3
BEACH PROCESSES
Beach Sediment Property
The science of sediment transport deals with the interrelationship
between flowing water and sediment particles and therefore
understanding of the physical properties of water and sediment is
essential to our study of sediment transport.
Physical properties of interest in the design of engineering works in the
coastal zone are;
Representative sediment particle size and distribution
Particle shape
Specific gravity
Specific weight
Permeability
Particle settling velocity

4. SEDIMENT PROPERTIES
Size: Size is the most basic and readily measurable property of
sediment. The size of particle can be determined by sieve size analysis
or Visual-accumulation tube analysis.
Nominal Diameter: It is the diameter of sphere having the same volume
as the particle.
Sieve Diameter: It is the diameter of the sphere equal to length of side
of a square sieve opening through which the particle can just pass. As
an approximation, the sieve diameter is equal to nominal diameter.
4

5. SEDIMENT PROPERTY
The most commonly used
classification for coastal sediments
is the one proposed by
Wentworth(1922).
Many physical scientists define
grain diameter by the phi unit, φ,
proposed by Krumbein (1936) and
based on the Wentworth size
classification. For a grain diameter
d given in mm,
where the minus sign is used so
the more common sand grain
diameters having d > 1mm will
have a positive phi value.
5

6. SEDIMENT PROPERTY
Another most commonly used
parameter in engineering
practice to define a beach sand
sample is the median diameter,
D50, given in mm.
Important features of a sediment
sample size-frequency
distribution can be defined by
three parameters;
• The central tendency (mean,
median or modal diameter)
• The dispersion or sorting
(standard deviation)
• The asymmetry (skewness)
Plot of typical sand size analysis
6

7. Shape refers to the form or configuration of a particle regardless of its
size or composition. Shape may be evaluated by observing particles
with a magnifying glass and comparing their shape to a standard chart
Corey shape factor is commonly used to describe the shape. i.e.
The shape factor is 1 for sphere. Naturally worn quartz particles
have an average shape factor of 0.7
a
b
c
SEDIMENT PROPERTY
7

8. SEDIMENT PROPERTY
Specific weight: Weight per unit volume
γ=ρg
The specific weight of deposited sediment depends upon the extent of
consolidation of the sediment. It increases with time after initial
deposition. It also depends upon composition of sediment mixture.
Specific gravity: It is the ratio of specific weight of given material to
the specific weight of water at 4oC or 32.2oF. The average specific
gravity of sediment is 2.65
Permeability: The permeability of the sea bed controls flow in and out
of the bed as a wave passes, and thus affects the rate of energy
dissipation. An empirical formula is given to calculate the permeability,
k, in darcys:
1 darcy is defined as a rate of flow of 1 cm3/s percolating through a
cross-sectional area of 1 cm2 and a pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm
when the viscosity of the flowing fluid is 1 centi-poise.
1 darcy = 0.987x10-8cm2
8

9. SEDIMENT PROPERTY
Particle Settling velocity: The fall velocity of sediment particle in
quiescent column of water is directly related to relative flow conditions
between sediment particle and water during conditions of sediment
entrainment, transportation and deposition.
It reflects the integrated result of size, shape, surface roughness, specific
gravity, and viscosity of fluid.
Fall velocity of particle can be calculated from a balance of buoyant weight and
the resisting force resulting from fluid drag.
For very fine sand particles (d<0.062mm) which settle according to
Stoke’s law of viscous drag, fall velocity is given by:
Where: w is fall velocity, ρs is the mass density of sediment, ρ is the mass density of
water, d is diameter of particle (d50), µ is the viscosity of water and ν is kinematic
viscosity of water (= µ/ ρ)
( )







 −
=
µ
ρρ 2
18
1 d
w s
1<=
ν
wd
Rfor
9

10. SEDIMENT PROPERTY
Particle Settling velocity:
For irregular sand grains fall velocity is given by (Soulsby, 1997):
Where, s (=ρs/ρ) is the specific gravity of sediment.
( ) 





−+= 36.10049.136.10
5.03
*
2
D
d
w
ν
( ) d
sg
D
3/1
2*
1





 −
=
ν
10

11. EXAMPLE
A sieve analysis of a sand sample showed the following:
Plot the sample cumulative frequency distribution on log-normal graph paper
and determine the phi median diameter, phi mean diameter, phi deviation
measure and phi skewness measure. Estimate the sample permeability.
11

12. EXAMPLE
Solution:
12

13. EXAMPLE
Solution:
13

14. EXAMPLE
Solution:
14

15. 15
SEDIMENT TRANPORT
Sediment Transport: The movement of sediment along with water.
1. Bed sediment transport (Bed load): by rolling or sliding along the
floor (bed) of the river or sea – sediment thus transported constitutes
the bedload
2. Suspended sediment transport (Suspended load): by suspension
in the moving fluid which is the suspended load.
Total load=bed load + suspended load
https://www.gic-edu.com/

16. 16
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Sediment Transport Formula:
Bed load
1. Currents
2. Waves
3. Waves and currents
Suspended load
1. Currents
2. Waves
3. Waves and currents
Total Load
1. Currents
2. Waves
3. Waves and currents

17. 17
WAVE INDUCED CURRENTS
Cross shore currents: The component of wave current perpendicular
to the shore is know as cross shore current.
Longshore currents: When waves approach the beach at an angle,
they create a current in shallow water parallel to the shore known as
longshore current.
Rip currents: longshore current, under certain conditions, may turn
and flow seaward in what is known as a rip current.

18. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Littoral transport (sediment transport): Movement of the sediment in
the nearshore zone by waves and currents.
It is divided into tow general classes:
1. Longshore transport (transport parallel to the shore)
2. Onshore-offshore transport or cross-shore transport (transport
perpendicular to the shore).
The material that is transported is called littoral drift.
18

19. 19
CHARACTERISTICS OF CURRENTS
Currents are unidirectional
Velocity distribution with in cross-shore direction
Velocity distribution with in cross-shore direction
( )dzzU
h
U
h
∫=
0
1
Average velocity over depth (undertow) is
given by:
( )''wu
dz
du
TL ρρντττ −+=+=
Shear stress at the bed =shear stress in laminar flow + shear stress in turbulent flow

20. 20
CHARACTERISTICS OF CURRENTS
Velocity distribution in laminar and turbulent flows
z
u
zU
ν
2
*)( =






=
oz
z
k
u
zU ln)(
2
*
ρ
τbu =*
u*=shear velocity
τb=bottom shear stress
Zo= elevation
corresponding to zero
velocity
Colebrook and white proposed following expression for estimation of zo
For hydraulically smooth flow (u*ks/ν ≤5)
*
11.0
u
zo
ν
=
For hydraulically rough flow (u*ks/ν ≥70) so kz 33.0=
For hydraulically transitional flow (5<u*ks/ν <70) so k
u
z 33.011.0
*
+=
ν

21. 21
CHARACTERISTICS OF CURRENTS
Computation of bed shear stress
For flat bed, ks=2d50 and
for ripple bed, ks=ripple height, Hr=100d50
2
2
1
fUb ρτ =
Where, f is friction factor
Bed shear stress due to skin and form friction
In the presence of ripples, the bottom shear stress (τbt) is due to two factors (1) skin friction (τb’) and
form friction (τb’’).
''', bbeffbt τττ +=
For flat bed
For ripple bed bed
Sand ripple bed
2
2
505.2
12
log
06.0
2
', U
d
h
beffbt
































==
ρ
ττ 2
2
12
log
06.0
2
''', U
H
h
r
bbefftb






























=+=
ρ
τττ

22. 22
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Incipient motion criteria and application: The forces acting on
spherical particle at the bottom of an open channel are shown in figure.
A sediment particle is in state of incipient
motion when one of the following condition
is satisfied.
FL=W
FD=FR
Mo=MR
Where: Mo is overturning moment due to
drag force, FD, & resistive force, FR.
MR is resisting moment due to FL & Ws

23. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Shield’s Diagram: Shield (1936) applied dimensional analysis to
determine some dimensionless parameters and established his well known
diagram for incipient motion.
The factors that are important in the determination of incipient motion are
the shear stress, difference in density between sediment and fluid,
diameter, kinematic viscosity, and gravitation acceleration.
Shield’ parameter
Critical Shield’ parameter
23

24. SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Soulsby and Whitehouse (1997) have proposed following formula for
estimation of critical shields’ parameter based on sediment size and
viscosity of fluid.
D is diameter of sediment
24

25. 25
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Sediment Transport Formula:
Bed load
1. Currents
2. Waves
3. Waves and currents
Suspended load
1. Currents
2. Waves
3. Waves and currents
Total Load
1. Currents
2. Waves
3. Waves and currents

26. 26
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Sediment Transport under waves and currents
Total Load = bed load + suspended load
Bed Load Suspended Load
max,5.0,, wbtcbtwcbt τττ +=
2
2
505.2
12
log
06.0
2
,, U
d
h
efftbcbt
































==
ρ
ττ
2
2
12
log
06.0
2
,, U
H
h
r
effbtctb






























==
ρ
ττ
For flat bed
For ripple bed
2
maxmax
2
1
, ufwwbt ρτ =








−





= 3.6
max
5.5exp
2.0
ξ
s
w
k
f
Ks=bed roughness
ξmax= maximum horizontal displacement
Umax=max. horizontal velocity

27. 27
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Sediment Transport under waves and currents
Total Load = bed load + suspended load
Bed Load Suspended Load
Bed load formula (Bijker, 1971)
ρ
τ wcbt
wcu
,
* =







 −−
=
wcbt
cbt
wc
gds
dqb
,
50
50, '
)1(27.0
exp
,
2
τ
ρ
ρ
τ
( )wcbrwcbt ,,' τµτ =
( )
( )ripplecbt
flatctb
r
,
,
τ
τ
µ =








+







= 21, 33.0
ln83.1 I
k
h
Iqq
s
bwcs
Suspended load formula (Einstein, 1950)
Where, I1 and I2 are Einstein integrals
( )
( )
( )dBB
B
B
A
A
I
dB
B
B
A
A
I
A
z
z
z
A
z
z
z
∫
∫





 −
−
=





 −
−
=
−
−
11
2
11
1
ln
1
)1(
216.0
1
)1(
216.0
*
*
*
*
*
*
h
z
B
h
k
A
ku
w
or
ku
w
z s
wc
s
c
s
=== ;;
**
*
For waves and current case replace
wcc uu ** =

28. dB
B
B
J
A
z
∫ 




 −
=
1
1
*
1
( )dBB
B
B
J
A
z
∫ 




 −
=
1
2 ln
1 *
28
For calculation of Einstein integrals

29. 29

30. 30
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Example: Determine the total load (bed+suspended) due to waves and
current for the following data. Consider a deep water wave of height
(Ho) 1.5m with wave period (T) of 8s and wave angle (θo) of 70o.
Other data are given below:
ρ= 1025kg/m3; kinematic viscosity, ν=10-6m2/s;
Current velocity, U=0.8m/s; ρ= 2650kg/m3; s=2.59
Still water depth, h (or d)=2.5m; d50=0.2mm;
Ripple height, Hr = bed roughness, Ks=100d50=0.02m;
Fall velocity, ws=0.025m/s,
Von-karman constant, k=0.4
Adopt Bijker and Einstein formulas.

31. 31
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Bed load: [Given that Ho=1.5m; h=2.5m; θθθθo=70o; T=8s]
Calculate L, Lo, Co, H, ξmax, umax using linear wave theory
smTLC
mTL
smTLC
mL
oo
oo
/48.128/84.99/
84.998*56.156.1
/82.48/57.38/
57.38:relationdispersionusing
22
===
===
===
=
oo
CCo
28.21
82.4
sin
48.12
70sinsinsin
calculatelaw,ssnell'using
=⇒=⇒= θ
θθθ
θ
mH
nC
C
H
H
w
oo
o
06.15.1*7066.0
7066.0
28.21cos
70cos
82.9487.0*2
48.12
cos
cos
2
Hheight,avecalculate
==
===
θ
θ
maxmax u,calculateξ
( ) ( ) ( )[ ]
( )[ ]
mtkx
kd
zdkH
266.1)1(
5.257.38/2sinh
5.25.257.38/2cosh
2
06.1
sin
sinh
cosh
2
max −=
−
−=⇒−
+
−=
π
π
ξσξ
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )[ ]
( )[ ]
smutkx
kd
zdk
T
H
u /1)1(
5.257.38/2sinh
5.25.257.38/2cosh
8
06.1
cos
sinh
cosh
max =
−
=⇒−
+
=
π
ππ
σ
π
( )
( )
9487.0
)5.2(57.38/22sinh
)5.2(57.38/2*2
1
2
1
2sinh
2
1
2
1
=





+=






+=
π
π
n
kd
kd
n
θ
θ
cos
cos
2
oo
o nC
C
H
H
=

32. 32
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Bed load: [Given that Ho=1.5m; h=2.5m; θθθθo=70o; T=8s]
smCmLsmCmL oo /48.12;84.99;/82.4;57.38 ====
o
28.21=θ mH 06.1= m266.1max =ξ smu /1max =
Calculate fw, Tbt,wmax, Tbt,c, Tbt,wc
( ) 222
maxmax /36.10102023.01025
2
1
2
1
, mNufwwbt === ρτ
02023.03.6
266.1
02.0
5.5exp3.6
max
5.5exp
2.02.0
=








−





=








−





=
ξ
s
w
k
f
( )
( )
( )
22
2
2
2
50
/861.08.0
0002.05.2
5.212
log
06.0
2
1025
5.2
12
log
06.0
2
, mNU
d
h
flatcbt =






























=
































==
ρ
τ
( )
( )
( )
22
2
2
2
/95.18.0
02.0
5.212
log
06.0
2
1025
12
log
06.0
2
, mNU
Hr
h
ripplecbt =






























=


























==
ρ
τ
( )
( )
44.095.1/861.0
,
,
===
ripplecbt
flatctb
r
τ
τ
µ
2
max /13.736.105.095.1,5.0,, mNxwbtcbtwcbt =+=+= τττ
2
/144.313.744.0,,' mNxwcbtrwcbt
=== τµτ

33. 33
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Bed load: [Given that Ho=1.5m; h=2.5m; θθθθo=70o; T=8s]
smCmLsmCmL oo /48.12;84.99;/82.4;57.38 ====
o
28.21=θ mH 06.1= m266.1max =ξ smu /1max =
2
max /36.10, mNwbt =τ ( ) 2
/861.0, mNflatcbt =τ ( ) 2
/95.1, mNripplecbt ==τ 44.0=rµ
2
/13.7, mNwcbt =τ
2
/144.3,' mNwcbt
=τ
Calculate bed load, qb
( ) ( ) msmx
x
q
wcb
//10325.1
144.3
81.910250002.0)159.2(27.0
exp
1025
95.1
0002.02 35
,
−
=




 −−
=
Calculate bed load, u*wc, A, z* and I1, I2 and qs
( ) ( )
( ) msmxxI
k
h
Iqq
s
bwcs
//1032.24
02.033.0
5.2
ln65.110325.183.1
33.0
ln83.1 345
21,
−−
=








−+





=








+







=
( )
1
5.2
5.2
;008.0
5.2
02.0
;75.0
083.04.0
025.0
083.0
1025
13.7
*
,
*
======
===
BAz
u
wctb
wc
ρ
τ
( )
( )
( ) 4ln
1
)1(
216.0
65.1
1
)1(
216.0
11
2
11
1
*
*
*
*
*
*
−=




 −
−
=
=




 −
−
=
∫
∫
−
−
dBB
B
B
A
A
I
dB
B
B
A
A
I
A
z
z
z
A
z
z
z







 −−
=
wcbt
cbt
wc
gds
dqb
,
50
50, '
)1(27.0
exp
,
2
τ
ρ
ρ
τ
h
z
B
h
k
A
ku
w
z s
wc
s
=== ;;
*
*

34. 34
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Bed load: [Given that Ho=1.5m; h=2.5m; θθθθo=70o; T=8s]
smCmLsmCmL oo /48.12;84.99;/82.4;57.38 ====
o
28.21=θ mH 06.1= m266.1max =ξ smu /1max =
2
max /36.10, mNwbt =τ ( ) 2
/861.0, mNflatcbt =τ ( ) 2
/95.1, mNripplecbt ==τ 44.0=rµ
2
/13.7, mNwcbt =τ
2
/144.3,' mNwcbt
=τ
msmxq
wcb
//10325.1 35
,
−
=
msmxq
wcs
//1032.2 34
,
−
==
Calculate total, q=qb+qs
msmxxxqqq wcswcb
//1045.21032.210325.1 3445
,,
−−−
=+=+=

35. 35
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Longshore Sediment Transport:
CERC formula (shore protection manual, 1984) based on concept of energy
flux is widely used for estimation of longshore sediment transport.
Average longshore current velocity is given by Longuet-Higgins (1970) as:
For sandy beaches it is give by:

36. 36
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Longshore Sediment Transport:
For sandy beaches, CERC formula is give by:
n in above formula is porosity
Sediment transport
Rate, Qs, is an immersed weight
transport rate, Il, related to the
volume transport rate by:

37. 37
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Example: A wave train with an average period of 8s and breaker height
of 2m is approaching the shore and breaking at an angle of 12o with the
shoreline. What average longshore current velocity is generated? If this
wave train represents the average conditions for the day, what volume
of longshore sand transport is produced in 24hr?
Solution:
Calculate longshore current, Vl

38. 38
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Calculate db, Eb, Cgb , Pl and Qs
n in above formula is porosity

39. 39
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT

40. 40
THANK YOU

41. 41
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
The management of coastal resources is integrally related to every
country’s economy.
Historically, coastal management has been synonymous with
coastal engineering. Managing the coast (essentially to maximize
its economic value) involved design and construction related to
personal safety, military defense and transportation.

42. 42
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
The coastal zones under pressure

43. 43
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
Typical uses of coastal zones

44. 44
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
Conforming use:
Traditionally, the coastal zone has had many uses, which compete for
limited space and may or may not conflict with each other.
Thus, coastal management may be defined as the management of
these uses of the coastal zone.
To be classified as a conforming use, it must be necessary for a
project to be situated along the coast. Examples are swimming
beaches, fishing ports and marinas.

45. 45
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
Conflict and compatibility:
One basic management tool is the compatibility matrix. Compatibility is
measured there on a scale of -2 (bad) to +2 (good).
A compatibility matrix for the conforming-use categories is given below
in table
If coastal management is the management of the uses of the coast, it must be
primarily the management of conflicts.

46. 46
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
Conflict and compatibility:

47. 47
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
Management principles and issues:

48. 48
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
Responsive Management Framework (after Townend, 1994)

49. 49
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
Integrated coastal zone management:
Jurisdiction over the coast varies from country to country, within
countries and even within regions.
In many countries, the jurisdiction over the coast is badly fragmented
between and within several levels of government.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is the strategy that is
used to deal with the many of disciplines involved with the coast
as well as the various of laws, regulations and jurisdictions. Here,
the concerns (such as physical, environmental and biological) are
considered together.
The concept behind the idea of ICZM is sustainability. For ICZM to
succeed, it must be sustainable.

50. 50
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
‘Traditional’ approach would manage rivers, wetlands, dunes
separately
‘Integrated’ approach would manage the links between these to
ensure activities in one place do not have negative impacts
elsewhere
‘Integration’
- bringing together, mixing together, combining, creating
something new...
‘Integrating’ in coastal zone management
- combining interests and aiming to satisfy different needs

51. 51
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
‘Horizontal integration’
- manages across sectors and seeks common problems
- seeks to avoid giving one sector preference over another
Example: fishing and tourism
- many areas of conflict
- manage through combining interests where possible
- minimising conflict through spatial planning and other means
‘Vertical integration’
- managing across levels of government
- centre, province, district, village...
- ensuring links between policies and practice are present
Improves administration
- Less conflict between levels of government
- Similar policies adopted across country
- Greater effectiveness of government
- Better public relations!

52. 52
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
‘Spatial integration’
- managing across administrative boundaries
- managing across physical boundaries (land, sea, river)
- reflects nature of environmental processes and human impacts
‘Scientific integration’
- trans-disciplinary approach (combining disciplines to form new
approaches)
- integration of ‘traditional’ and ‘scientific’ knowledge
- difficult but generates widespread benefits

53. 53
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
Integrated coastal zone management:
Integrated approach reflects the close links between human activities, the
natural environment and the impacts of human activities in the coastal
zone

54. 54
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT
‘Threats’
- These can be grouped into broad ‘issues’?
1. Biodiversity loss
2. Pollution
3. Coastal erosion
4. Coastal flooding
5. Climate change

55. SHORE PROTECTION/MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Five generic strategies are
involved in coastal defense
1. Abandonment
2. Managed retreat or realignment,
which plans for retreat and adopts
engineering solutions that
accommodate natural processes of
adjustment
3. Armoring by constructing seawalls
and other hard structures
4. Construct defenses seaward of
the coast
5. Adapting vertically by elevating
land and buildings
The choice of strategy is site-specific, depending on pattern of sea-level change,
geomorphological setting, sediment availability and erosion, as well as social,
economic and political factors.
Management strategies are physical management of the coast to control natural
processes such as flood and erosion.
55
wikipedia.org

56. 56
SHORE PROTECTION/MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Managed retreat is an alternative to constructing or maintaining coastal
structures. Managed retreat allows an area to erode. Managed retreat is often a
response to a change in sediment budget or to sea level rise. The technique is
used when the land adjacent to the sea is low in value.
Holding the line typically involves shoreline hardening techniques, e.g., using
permanent concrete and rock constructions.
In some cases a seaward strategy can be adopted. An upside to the strategy is
that moving seaward (and upward) can create land of high value which can bring
investment.
Limited intervention is an action taken whereby the management only
addresses the problem to a certain extent, usually in areas of low economic
significance.

57. 57
SHORE PROTECTION/MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Management strategies are physical management of the coast to control natural
processes such as flood and erosion.
Construction Techniques:
Soft Engineering:
Soft engineering options make use of natural systems. These are often less
expensive than hard engineering options. They are usually more long-term
and sustainable, with less impact on the environment.
Hard Engineering:
Hard Engineering options involve construction of coastal structures.
These tend to be expensive, short-term options. They may also have a high
impact on the landscape or environment and be unsustainable.
These fall in two classes:
1. Structures to prevent wave from reaching harbor area
2. Manmade structures to retard the longshore transport of littoral drift (sediment)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_management#cite_note-auto-3

58. 58
SHORE PROTECTION/MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Soft Engineering:
Soft engineering options make use of natural systems. These are often less
expensive than hard engineering options. They are usually more long-term
and sustainable, with less impact on the environment.
Beach nourishment:
Beach reprofiling:
Dune regeneration:
Offshore reef:
Managed retreat:

59. 59
EROSION MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Possible management solutions to reduce the impacts of erosion

60. 60
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

62. THANK YOU
62