The effect methods of control common hazards (assignment 2)

Running Head : THE EFFECTIVE METHODS OF CONTROL COMMON HAZARDS
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
CONSTRUCTION
Construction industry plays an important role in improvement of countries’
economic growth. Despite the contributions to economical growth, construction
industry has always been blamed for the high rates of accidents and fatalities; this
issue has placed the construction industry among the industries with unreasonable
rates of accidents, permanent and non permanent disabilities and even fatalities.
There are many evidences in representing construction industry as a hazardous and
inconsistent industry. High rates of accidents and fatalities in this industry have placed
it among hazardous industries. The costs of injuries, which are direct and indirect,
Workers’ compensation insurance, legal liability as well as legal prosecutions have
pushed parties involved to seek ways of mitigating these hazards.
Over the years scenario of construction industry becomes more challenging.
Accidents happen at construction site are always at every where especially in high
rise construction. To date, people especially safety players in construction will find the
best method in combating such accidents from happen. On top of that, hazards issues
are also cannot be neglected by construction players. Hazards will also much
contributed to the accidents. Hazard should be properly understood by safety players
as well as construction players and workers. Many people were not much pay attention
on hazard at construction site. As such, workers are not much aware on hazard
especially hazard related with the working at height, hoisting machineries, scaffolding
works and mobile machineries. Hazard on these categories were classified critical as
its involved people factor and also life. The life can not be compromised to the
accidents as it would impart the bad image of construction fraternity as a whole. Again,
the stigma of the people was thought that the construction industry can not be run
away from the three 3-D syndrome namely dirty, dangerous and difficult. This mindset
should be turning over to more realistic and harmonisation in construction towards
sustainable construction and make the construction is rather creating wealth.

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Accidents in construction sites are unplanned occurrences involving movement
of persons, objects or materials which may result in injuries, damages and losses to
properties or people. The majority of accidents happen as result of unsafe acts and
unsafe conditions. Since all hazards in construction workplaces are not always
possible to be identified and eliminated therefore effective accident investigation
programs are essential for collecting critical data. Construction accidents can be
prevented just by identifying the root causes of accidents, which is possible by
accident investigation techniques such as theories of accident causation theories and
human errors; these theories provide explanations of why accidents happen. This
paper is aimed at reviewing the most common accident which mainly focus on people
variable, effective methods of control common hazards. The intention of this paper is
to provide suggestion on how to reduce the hazard in order to increase productivity for
the nation. They do not offer extensive strategic guidelines for managers and
supervisors for reducing risks at construction workplaces. Moreover, the inappropriate
perception that accidents in workplaces can be prevented if human errors are
eliminated. Strategies need to be revised to manage the risk and workers need to be
watchful of it. A great number of accidents can be prevented if the safety management
system reflects both natural degradation and these intrinsic threats. The initial step in
developing such system is preparing a model which shows the interaction between
the accident likelihood and organizational tasks and activities in the presence of these
hazards.

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2.0 COMMON HAZARD IN CONSTRUCTION
There are two major categories of hazard in construction sites namely: -
a. The risk of physical injury or physical injury hazard. The agents to the
above mention hazard are normally associated with process of works or
equipment used and climatic conditions such as scaffolds, power access
equipment and manual handling, ladder, roof work, plant and machinery,
excavation, etc.
b. The risk of ill health or health hazard. Health hazards in construction
work may be grouped under chemical, physical and biological hazards.
2.1 Workplace Hazard
Although work provides many economic and other benefits, a wide array of
workplace hazards also present risks to the health and safety of people at work. These
include but are not limited to, "chemicals, biological agents, physical factors, adverse
ergonomic conditions, allergens, a complex network of safety risks," and a broad range
of psychosocial risk factors.
Physical hazards are a common source of injuries in many industries. They are
perhaps unavoidable in many industries such as construction and mining, but over
time people have developed safety methods and procedures to manage the risks of
physical danger in the workplace. Employment of children may pose special
problems. Falls are a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially
in construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and
maintenance.
An engineering workshop specialising in the fabrication and welding of
components has to follow the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at work
regulations 1992. It is an employers duty to provide ‘all equipment (including clothing
affording protection against the weather) which is intended to be worn or held by a
person at work which him against one or more risks to his health and safety’. In a

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fabrication and welding workshop an employer would be required to provide face and
eye protection, safety footwear, overalls and other necessary PPE.
Machines are common place in many industries ,including manufacturing,
mining, construction and agriculture, which can be dangerous to workers. Many
machines involve moving parts, sharp edges, hot surfaces and other hazards with the
potential to crush, burn, cut, shear, stab or otherwise strike or wound workers if used
unsafely. Various safety measures exist to minimize these hazards, including lockout-
tag out procedures for machine maintenance and roll over protection systems for
vehicles. According to the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, machine-related
injuries were responsible for 64,170 cases that required days away from work in 2008.
More than a quarter of these cases required more than 31 days spent away from work.
That same year, machines were the primary or secondary source of over 600 work-
related fatalities. Machines are also often involved indirectly in worker deaths and
injuries, such as in cases in which a worker slips and falls, possibly upon a sharp or
pointed object. The transportation sector bears many risks for the health of commercial
drivers, too, for example from vibration, long periods of sitting, work stress and
exhaustion. These problems occur in Europe but in other parts of the world the
situation is even worse. More drivers die in accidents due to security defects in
vehicles. Long waiting times at borders cause that drivers are away from home and
family much longer and even increase the risk of HIV infections.
Noise also presents a fairly common workplace hazard: occupational hearing
loss is the most common work-related injury in the United States, with 22 million
workers exposed to hazardous noise levels at work and an estimated $242 million
spent annually on worker's compensation for hearing loss disability. Noise is not the
only source of occupational hearing loss; exposure to chemicals such as aromatic
solvents and metals including lead, arsenic, and mercury can also cause hearing loss.
Temperature extremes can also pose a danger to workers. Heat stress can
cause heat stroke, exhaustion, cramps, and rashes. Heat can also fog up safety
glasses or cause sweaty palms ordizziness, all of which increase the risk of other
injuries. Workers near hot surfaces or steam also are at risk for burns.
Dehydration may also result from overexposure to heat. Cold stress also poses a

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danger to many workers. Overexposure to cold conditions or extreme cold can lead
to hypothermia, frostbite, trench foot, or chilblains.
Electricity poses a danger to many workers. Electrical injuries can be divided
into four types: fatal electrocution, electric shock, burns, and falls caused by contact
with electric energy.
Vibrating machinery, lighting, and air pressure can also cause work-related
illness and injury. Asphyxiation is another potential work hazard in certain
situations. Musculoskeletal disorders are avoided by the employment of
good ergonomic design and the reduction of repeated strenuous movements or lifts
3.0 EFFECT OF COMMON HAZARD IN CONSTRUCTION
 the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and
social well-being of workers in all occupations;
 the prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their
working conditions;
 the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors
adverse to health;
 the placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment
adapted to physical and mental needs;
 the adaptation of work to humans.
3.1 Poor working conditions affect worker health and safety
 Poor working conditions of any type have the potential to affect a worker's
health and safety.
 Unhealthy or unsafe working conditions are not limited to factories — they can
be found anywhere, whether the workplace is indoors or outdoors. For many
workers, such as agricultural workers or miners, the workplace is “outdoors”
and can pose many health and safety hazards.

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 Poor working conditions can also affect the environment workers live in, since
the working and living environments are the same for many workers. This
means that occupational hazards can have harmful effects on workers, their
families, and other people in the community, as well as on the physical
environment around the workplace. A classic example is the use of pesticides
in agricultural work. Workers can be exposed to toxic chemicals in a number of
ways when spraying pesticides: they can inhale the chemicals during and after
spraying, the chemicals can be absorbed through the skin, and the workers can
ingest the chemicals if they eat, drink, or smoke without first washing their
hands, or if drinking water has become contaminated with the chemicals. The
workers' families can also be exposed in a number of ways: they can inhale the
pesticides which may linger in the air, they can drink contaminated water, or
they can be exposed to residues which may be on the worker's clothes. Other
people in the community can all be exposed in the same ways as well. When
the chemicals get absorbed into the soil or leach into groundwater supplies, the
adverse effects on the natural environment can be permanent.
Work-related accidents or diseases are very costly and can have many serious direct
and indirect effects on the lives of workers and their families. For workers some of
the direct costs of an injury or illness are:
 the pain and suffering of the injury or illness;
 the loss of income;
 the possible loss of a job;
 health-care costs.
It has been estimated that the indirect costs of an accident or illness can be four
to ten times greater than the direct costs, or even more. An occupational illness or
accident can have so many indirect costs to workers that it is often difficult to measure
them. One of the most obvious indirect costs is the human suffering caused to workers'
families, which cannot be compensated with money.

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The costs to employers of occupational accidents or illnesses are also estimated
to be enormous. For a small business, the cost of even one accident can be a financial
disaster. For employers, some of the direct costs are:
 payment for work not performed;
 medical and compensation payments;
 repair or replacement of damaged machinery and equipment;
 reduction or a temporary halt in production;
 increased training expenses and administration costs;
 possible reduction in the quality of work;
 negative effect on morale in other workers.
Some of the indirect costs for employers are:
 the injured/ill worker has to be replaced;
 a new worker has to be trained and given time to adjust;
 it takes time before the new worker is producing at the rate of the original
worker;
 time must be devoted to obligatory investigations, to the writing of reports and
filling out of forms;
 accidents often arouse the concern of fellow workers and influence labour
relations in a negative way;
 poor health and safety conditions in the workplace can also result in poor public
relations.
Overall, the costs of most work-related accidents or illnesses to workers and their
families and to employers are very high.
3.2 The range of hazards
There is an unlimited number of hazards that can be found in almost any
workplace. There are obvious unsafe working conditions, such as unguarded
machinery, slippery floors or inadequate fire precautions, but there are also a number
of categories of insidious hazards (that is, those hazards that are dangerous but which
may not be obvious) including:

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 chemical hazards, arising from liquids, solids, dusts, fumes, vapours and gases;
 physical hazards, such as noise, vibration, unsatisfactory lighting, radiation and
extreme temperatures;
 biological hazards, such as bacteria, viruses, infectious waste and infestations;
 psychological hazards resulting from stress and strain;
 hazards associated with the non-application of ergonomic principles, for
example badly designed machinery, mechanical devices and tools used by
workers, improper seating and workstation design, or poorly designed work
practices.
4.0 REDUCE AND RECOMMENDATION
The Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (Act 514) is a piece
of Malaysian legislation which was gazetted on 25 February 1994 by the Malaysian
Parliament.
The principle of the Act is "To make further provision for securing that safety,
health and welfare of persons at work, for protecting others against risks
to safety or health in connection with the activities of persons at work, to establish
the National Council for Occupational Safety and Health and for matters connected
therewith."
The Act applies throughout Malaysia to the industries specified in the First
Schedule. Nothing in this act shall apply to work aboard ships governed by the
Merchant Shipping Ordinance 1952, the Merchant Shipping Ordinance 1960
of Sabah or Sarawak or the armed forces.
 Occupational Safety and Health (Employers' Safety and Health General Policy
Statements) (Exception) Regulations 1995
 Occupational Safety and Health (Control of Industry Major Accident Hazards)
Regulations 1996
 Occupational Safety and Health (Safety and Health Committee) Regulations 1996
 Occupational Safety and Health (Classification, Packaging and Labelling of
Hazardous Chemicals) Regulations 1997

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 Occupational Safety and Health (Safety and Health Officer) Regulations 1997
 Occupational Safety and Health (Safety and Health Officer) Order 1997
 Occupational Safety and Health (Prohibition of Use of Substance) Order 1999
 Occupational Safety and Health (Use and Standards of Exposure of Chemicals
Hazardous to Health) Regulations 2000
 Occupational Safety and Health (Notification of Accident, Dangerous Occurrence,
Occupational Poisoning and Occupational Disease) Regulation 2004
Effective workplace health and safety programmes can help to save the lives of
workers by reducing hazards and their consequences. Health and safety programmes
also have positive effects on both worker morale and productivity, which are important
benefits. At the same time, effective programmes can save employers a great deal of
money.
4.1 Points to remember
1. Occupational health and safety encompasses the social, mental and physical
well-being of workers in all occupations.
2. Poor working conditions have the potential to affect a worker's health and
safety.
3. Unhealthy or unsafe working conditions can be found anywhere, whether the
workplace is indoors or outdoors.
4. Poor working conditions can affect the environment workers live in. This means
that workers, their families, other people in the community, and the physical
environment around the workplace, can all be at risk from exposure to
workplace hazards.
5. Employers have a moral and often legal responsibility to protect workers.
6. Work-related accidents and diseases are common in all parts of the world and
often have many direct and indirect negative consequences for workers and
their families. A single accident or illness can mean enormous financial loss to
both workers and employers.
7. Effective workplace health and safety programmes can help to save the lives
of workers by reducing hazards and their consequences. Effective programmes

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can also have positive effects on both worker morale and productivity, and can
save employers a great deal of money.
4.2 Identifying the cause of occupational disease
The cause of work-related diseases is very often difficult to determine. One
factor is the latency period (the fact that it may take years before the disease produces
an obvious effect on the worker's health). By the time the disease is identified, it may
be too late to do anything about it or to find out what hazards the worker was exposed
to in the past. Other factors such as changing jobs, or personal behaviours (such as
smoking tobacco or drinking alcohol) further increase the difficulty of linking workplace
exposures to a disease outcome.
Although more is understood now about some occupational hazards than in the
past, every year new chemicals and new technologies are being introduced which
present new and often unknown hazards to both workers and the community. These
new and unknown hazards present great challenges to workers, employers,
educators, and scientists, that is to everyone concerned about workers' health and the
effects that hazardous agents have on the environment.
4.3 Points to remember about the extent of the problem worldwide
1. There are at least 250 million occupational accidents every year worldwide, at
least 335,000 of which result in death.
2. Developing countries have more fatal accidents than industrialized nations,
emphasizing the need for health and safety education programmes that focus
on prevention.
3. Some occupational diseases have been recognized for many years and affect
workers in different ways. Such diseases are still problems in all parts of the
world.
4. The numbers of work-related diseases in developing countries are much higher
in reality than the numbers that are reported.
5. The numbers of cases and types of occupational diseases are increasing in
both developing and industrialized countries.

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6. It is often difficult to identify the cause of both occupational accidents and
diseases.
4.4 Development Strategy
A survey of industrialists and researchers from leading regions identified the
following three areas that were seen as key to moving from the current situation to the
ideal OSH state. They were:
(1) More responsible client behaviour – to adopt procurement approaches
that support the integration of health and safety into project decision making
and drive this so that it happens. The green building analogy comes to mind. If
clients want environmentally sustainable buildings they get them. Why not
healthier and safer building techniques and processes too?
(2) Health and safety becomes a professional responsibility of everyone in
the industry. At the moment it is perceived to be the health and safety
professional’s job. Health and safety professionals are generally not architects,
engineers etc. They don’t make decisions. They act as advisors. The decision
makers need to step up and take professional responsibility.
(3) Closer and more effective links between industry and academia. There
is a need for a more evidence-based approach to construction health and
safety. Companies need to know with certainty what works and what doesn’t.
Managers are easily persuaded when there is evidence but sceptical when
there is none.
5.0 SUMMARY
Human Management Job Site
Conditions
Equipment & Material

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(a) (b) (c) (d)
-Lack of certain
abilities
-Lack of certain
attitudes Such as
stubbornness or
recklessness
-Physical and
emotional stress
-Excessive
overtime work for
labor
-Reluctance to
input tools for
safety
-Misplacing objects
-Overexertion or
strenuous
movement
-Struck by falling
objects, materials
and tools
-Loss of balance
-Stepping on or
striking against
objects
-Inappropriate use
of ladders and
hoists
-Improper cleaning
and unusable
materials
-Lack of certain
knowledge
-Lack of awareness
of safety
regulations
-Inadequate safety
performance
-Supervisory fault
-Lack of
experienced
project managers
-Poor inspection
program
-Poor safety
awareness of
project managers
-Lack of innovative
technology
-Substandard
structure / parts of
structure
-Excessive Noise
-Slippery and
muddy work
surface
-Poor ventilation
-Poor illumination
-Lack of edge
protection
-Hole and edge
-Limitation of
working area
-Collapse of
temporary structure
-Operating equipment
without authority
-Using defective tools or
equipment
-Mechanical failure of
machinery
-Unsafe facilities and
equipment
-Low tool maintenance
-Lack of protection in
material transportation
-Lack of protection in
material storage
-Failure to secure
materials during hauling/
lifting
-Lack of warning system
(a) (b) (c) (d)

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-Lack of teamwork
spirits
-Transient
workforce
-Dangerous
demolition work
5.0 AGRICULCURE
Malaysia, a middle-income country, has transformed itself since the 1970s from
a producer of raw materials into an emerging multi-sector economy. After achieving
independence, Malaysia faced a need to develop and diversify its economy given its
rapidly growing population. The country abandoned reliance on the export of primary
natural resources and agricultural products and established itself as a rapidly
industrialising country with a diversified export base. By the beginning of the 21st
century, Malaysia had become one of the fastest-growing economies in Southeast
Asia and the third-richest state (after Brunei and Singapore) in the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
Agriculture has been identified as the economy's third engine of growth.
"During the Ninth Plan period, the agriculture sector will be revitalised to become the
third engine of growth. The emphasis will be on new agriculture which will involve
large scale commercial farming, the wider application of modern technology,
production of high quality and value-added products, unlocking the potential in
biotechnology, increased convergence with information and communications
technology (ICT), and the participation of entrepreneurial farmers and skilled
workforce. The function of agricultural services will also be streamlined to enhance
service delivery and efficiency" (Economic Planning Unit, 2006: 81).
Agriculture contributes approximately 10% of Malaysia's Gross Domestic
Product (GDP), and at least one-third of the country's population depends on the
sector for its livelihood, with some 14% employed on farms and plantations. Climate
change will affect the sector in terms of production, it will also have a socioeconomic
impact on the people who are employed in the sector and the nation as a whole

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(Mustafa, 2007). From the perspective of land use, approximately 39.2% of the total
arable land, (approximately 5.18 million ha) is planted with tree crops, such as rubber,
oil palm, cocoa, coconut and fruits and vegetables. Agriculture is greatly affected by
extreme climate change, which is known to have a particularly important effect on crop
development. Change in climatic factors, such as the amount of rainfall, sunshine
hours and temperature, results in a year-to-year variability of crop production, physical
damage, loss of harvest, drop in productivity and vigour as well as other problems. In
addition, high temperatures and reduced rainfall dry the soil, lessening the amount
of water available for irrigation and decreasing crop growth in non-irrigated regions
(Siwar et al., 2009). Climate change is a major potential threat to food security and
agriculture for the country. Because climate change is a continuous and long-term
process, its impact will be felt for many years.
Agriculture, which predominantly employs the poor, is a fragile and risk-prone
sector. Risk means susceptibility to an unforeseen major or minor hazardous event
(Sinha and Lipton, 1999; Anderson, 1999). Agriculture is subject to risks that are often
unpredictable and outside human control. Examples of such risks include weather,
commodity-price fluctuations, changes in consumer demand and outbreaks of
pests and diseases. Such disasters could have harmful effects on the economy and
the social organisation and psychology of the people affected. Floods in Johor (2006–
2007) displaced 110,000 people, damaging an estimated Ringgit Malaysia (RM) 0.35
billion worth of infrastructure and causing RM2.4 billion in economic losses. An
estimated RM84 million worth of agricultural produce was damaged or lost, affecting
7,000 farmers. Approximately 9% of the Malaysian land area (2.97 million ha) is in
flood plains, and 3.5 million people have become victims of flooding. Estimating the
cost of flood damage is difficult; however, a conservative figure of RM100 million has
been estimated as the average loss by flood damage per year (Mustafa, 2007; Siwar
et al., 2009).
In general, Malaysia has not experienced frequent climate-related disasters
(i.e., floods and droughts that had a significant socio-economic impact on the nation),
although lately some minor climate-related disasters have been recorded. Landslides
due to excessive rainfall and strong winds occur in hilly regions and at the coast, the
latter causing minimal damage (Mustafa, 2007).

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Table 1. Industrial Accidents Reported by Sectors, Malaysia, 1994 – 2008
Table 2. Types of Accidents Reported by Sectors, Malaysia, 1998 & 2008
6.0 COMMON HAZARDS IN AGRICULTURE SECTOR, MALAYSIA
Improving occupational health, safety and environmental (OHSE) standards for
agricultural workers and small farmers, including regulation and enforcement (see
“labour inspection”, in the next section), must be included as one of the key
components of sustainable agriculture. Furthermore, there must be recognition that

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improving health, safety and environmental standards for workers can help protect and
improve standards of public and environmental health, consumer food safety, and
environmental protection, especially with regard to exposure to pesticides and other
agrochemicals.
Agriculture is one of the three most dangerous occupations to work in, along
with mining and construction. Waged agricultural workers face a wide range of hazards
at work including, for example, dangerous machinery, unsafe electrical wiring and
appliances, livestock-transmitted diseases, falls from heights, and exposure to
toxic pesticides.
6.2 Pesticides
Agricultural work - and this is one of its most distinguishing characteristics -
is carried out in a rural environment where there is no clear distinction between working
and living conditions, unlike the case of the factory or office worker. As a result,
agricultural workers and their families face extra dangers such as exposure to
pesticides. Furthermore, the poverty experienced by waged agricultural workers and
small farmers can contribute to increased risks of work-related ill-health due to bad
diet and malnutrition.
In 2004, CAP conducted a study of 11 oil palm plantations located in the
northern states of Malaysia. The study focused on women herbicide sprayers, their
working conditions and the consequent health impacts.
Work on an oil palm plantation is back-breaking and hazardous. Women
herbicide sprayers are expected to carry an 18-litre (4-gallon) drum containing
herbicide and complete 14 to 16 rounds of spraying per day. Tractor spraying is also
conducted on some plantations, where bigdrums of herbicide are placed on both sides
of the tractor. Two women carry the pumps and spray as the tractor moves.
In either case, the sprayers themselves are engulfed in a fine mist of herbicide.
Recommended safety measures are rarely employed. The use of protective masks,
gloves and boots is often impractical owing to the hot and humid tropical climate. Due
to the widespread lack of awareness of the hazards of herbicides, inhalation and skin

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absorption are the major causes of occupational poisoning cases among women
sprayers.
On the plantations, management decides which pesticides or herbicides to
use as well as their frequency of application. The majority of workers interviewed did
not even know what herbicides they were using while others identified them only by
colour or odour. The women obligingly carried out their supervisors’ instructions on
proportions and mixing of the herbicides. Most of the women were not even aware of
the toxicity of the chemicals and the dangers that they were being exposed to.
The only protection women wear are safety boots and maybe a handkerchief
or towel to cover their mouth and nose. The women complain that management is
reluctant to replace worn personal protective equipment and demand that workers
show them the damaged equipment. Even so, they only replace equipment
periodically. Most women must purchase their own safety boots since they cannot get
replacement for torn boots from their employers. Others do not replace their boots
since they cannot afford to do so.
6.3 Risk of Hazardous Materials Transportation by Rail
In the transportation industry, quantitative risk assessments (QRA) have been
used as a tool to help determine the safest route for the transportation of hazardous
materials. Among the studies carried out on hazardous materials transportation, most
have been centred on materials such as chlorine, LPG and gasoline. The use of QRAs
in the transportation industry, mainly for the transportation of hazardous materials by
rail has been applied vigorously in recent years due to the concerns that most of the
rail transportation routes are located close to heavily populated areas and the risks
posed by the transported hazardous materials to the surrounding populations along
the transportation route. Besides, case histories have also shown that the risks of
hazardous materials during transport may present additional risks in addition to those
associated with the inherent chemical and physical properties of the hazardous
substances, mainly due to the circumstances and location of the incidents may be
unpredictable.

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In the present study, the rail transportation route of anhydrous liquefied
ammonia in Malaysia, from the Petronas Fertilizers Kedah (PFK) plant in Gurun to the
CCM fertilizer facilities in Port Klang, was studied due to the large amount of
transported hazardous material (35,000 tons/year, 70 trips per year) and potential
affected populations along the specified route (some of the residential areas and
dwellings are located as close as 3 – 6m from the track).
6.4 Behavior of Ammonia Upon Release
Ammonia is an important chemical for use primarily in the manufacturing of
fertilizers and also as the starting material for the manufacture of a great variety of
chemicals. It is a colorless gas, lighter than air and has a very pungent odor. It can be
liquefied at atmospheric pressure by reducing the temperature to -330C and usually
stored and transported as a pressurized and/or refrigerated liquid. Typically, ammonia
releases into the environment can be classified into three types of behaviours under
operating conditions such as: Pressurized Liquid above its Boiling Point (known as
superheated liquid), Pressurized Liquid below or at its Boiling Point, and Pressurized
Gas above its Boiling Point. In this study, the behaviour of ammonia following a rail
transport accident is expected to be the superheat liquid, based on the case study rail
car storage temperature and pressure.
6.5 Snake-bite
Snake-bite is an environmental, occupational and climatic hazard in rural and
urban areas of many countries. Attention to the following recommendations for
community education might reduce the risk of bites. Snakes have adapted to a wide
range of habitats and prey species. All snakes are predatory carnivores, none is
vegetarian although some eat eggs. Since snakes are preyed upon by other animals,
they tend to be secretive and have evolved many survival strategies. By understanding
something about the habits of snakes, simple precautions can be adopted to reduce
the chance of encounters and consequently bites. One must know the local snakes,
the sort of places where they prefer to live and hide, the time of year and time of day
or night and the kind of weather when they are most likely to be actively out and about.
Many species are mainly nocturnal (night hunters) e.g. kraits, but other species are

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mainly diurnal (day-time hunters). Be specially vigilant about snake-bites after rains,
during flooding, at harvest time and at night. Snakes prefer not to confront large
animals such as humans so give them the chance to slither away.
In the house: Snakes may enter the house in search of food or to find a hiding
place for a while. Do not keep livestock, especially chickens, in the house, as snakes
may come to hunt them. Store food in rat-proof containers. Regularly check houses
for snakes and, if possible, avoid those types of house construction that will provide
snakes with hiding places (e.g. thatched rooves with open eaves, mud and straw walls
with large cracks and cavities and large unsealed spaces beneath floorboards). If
possible, try to avoid sleeping on the ground. If you have to sleep on the ground use
an insecticide-impregnated mosquito net that is well tucked in under the mattress or
sleeping mat. This will protect against mosquitoes and other biting insects, centipedes,
scorpions and snakes (Chappuis et al., 2007). No chemical has yet been discovered
that is effectively repellent to snakes without being so toxic as to threaten the life of
children and domestic animals.
In the farm yard, compound or garden: Try not to provide hiding places for
snakes. Clear termite mounds, heaps of rubbish, building materials etc. from near the
house. Do not have tree branches touching the house. Keep grass short or clear the
ground around your house and clear low bushes in the vicinity so that snakes cannot
hide close to the house. Keep your granary away from the house, it may attract rodents
that snakes will hunt. Water sources, reservoirs and ponds may also attract prey
animals such as frogs and toads. Listen to wild and domestic animals, especially birds,
as they warn of a snake nearby. Use a light when you walk outside the house or visit
the latrine at night.
In the countryside: Firewood collection at night is a real danger. Watch where
you walk. Rather than walking bare-footed or wearing sandals, use proper shoes or
boots and long trousers, especially when walking in the dark or in undergrowth. Step
on to rocks or logs rather than straight over them – snakes may be sunning themselves
on the sides. Do not put hands into holes or nests or any hidden places where snakes
might rest. Use a light (torch, flashlight or lamp) when walking at night, especially after
heavy rains. Be careful when handling dead or apparently dead snakes – even an

20
accidental scratch from the fang of a snake’s severed head may inject venom. Snake
restaurants pose a threat of bites to staff and customers. Many snake-bites occur
during ploughing, planting and harvesting and in the rainy season. Rain may wash
snakes and debris into gutters at the edges of roads, and flush burrowing species out
of their burrows. Hence, be careful when walking on roads after heavy rain, especially
after dark.
On the road: Drivers or cyclists should never intentionally run over snakes on
the road. The snake may not be instantly killed and may lie injured and pose a risk to
pedestrians. The snake may also be injured and trapped under the vehicle, from where
it will crawl out once the vehicle has stopped or has been parked in the house
compound or garage.
In rivers, estuaries and the sea: To prevent sea snake-bites, fishermen
should avoid touching sea snakes caught in nets and on lines. The head and tail are
not easily distinguishable. There is a risk of bites to bathers and those washing clothes
in the muddy water of estuaries, river mouths and some coastlines.
General: Avoid snakes as far as possible, including those displayed by snake
charmers who are frequently bitten. Never handle, threaten or attack a snake and
never intentionally trap or corner a snake in an enclosed space. Keep young children
away from areas known to be snake-infested. In occupations that carry a risk of snake-
bite, such as rice farming and fish farming, employers might be held responsible for
providing protective clothing (boots). In Myanmar, farmers can take out special low-
cost insurance to cover them specifically against snake-bite.
7.0 EFFECT OF COMMON HAZARD IN AGRICULTURE
7.1 Effect on soil fertility (beneficial soil microorganisms)

21
Heavy treatment of soil with pesticides can cause populations of beneficial soil
microorganisms to decline. According to the soil scientist Dr. Elaine Ingham, “If we
lose both bacteria and fungi, then the soil degrades. Overuse of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides have effects on the soil organisms that are similar to human overuse
of antibiotics. Indiscriminate use of chemicals might work for a few years, but after
awhile, there aren't enough beneficial soil organisms to hold onto the nutrients”
(Savonen, 1997). For example, plants depend on a variety of soil microorganisms to
transform atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates, which plants can use. Common
landscape herbicides disrupt this process: triclopyr inhibits soil bacteria that transform
ammonia into nitrite (Pell et al., 1998); glyphosate reduces the growth and activity of
free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil (Santos and Flores, 1995) and 2,4-D reduces
nitrogen fixation by the bacteria that live on the roots of bean plants (Arias and
Fabra, 1993; Fabra et al., 1997), reduces the growth and activity of nitrogen-fixing
blue-green algae (Singh and Singh, 1989; Tözüm-Çalgan and Sivaci-Güner, 1993),
and inhibits the transformation of ammonia into nitrates by soil bacteria
(Frankenberger et al., 1991, Martens and Bremner, 1993). Mycorrhizal fungi grow with
the roots of many plants and aid in nutrient uptake. These fungi can also be damaged
by herbicides in the soil. One study found that oryzalin and trifluralin both inhibited the
growth of certain species of mycorrhizal fungi (Kelley and South, 1978). Roundup has
been shown to be toxic to mycorrhizal fungi in laboratory studies, and some damaging
effects were seen at concentrations lower than those found in soil following typical
applications (Chakravarty and Sidhu, 1987; Estok et al., 1989). Triclopyr was also
found to be toxic to several species of mycorrhizal fungi (Chakravarty and Sidhu, 1987)
and oxadiazon reduced the number of mycorrhizal fungal spores (Moorman, 1989).
7.2 Production risk
Agriculture is often characterised by a high variability of production outcomes
or production risk. Unlike most other entrepreneurs, farmers are not able to predict
with certainty the amount of output that the production process will yield due to
external factors such as weather, pests, and diseases. Farmers can also be hindered
by adverse events during harvesting or threshing that may result in production losses
(Jaffer, Siegel and Andrews, 2008).

22
7.3 Price or market risk
Input- and output-price volatility is an important source of market risk in
agriculture. Prices of agricultural commodities are extremely volatile. Outputprice
variability originates from endogenous and exogenous market shocks. Segmented
agricultural markets will be influenced mainly by local supply-anddemand conditions,
while more globally integrated markets will be significantly affected by international
production dynamics. In local markets, price risk is sometimes mitigated by the natural-
hedge effect, in which an increase (decrease) in annual production tends to decrease
(increase) output price, although not necessarily farmers' revenues. In integrated
markets, a reduction in prices is generally not correlated with local supply conditions,
and, therefore, price shocks may affect producers in a more significant way (Agwe
and Fissha, 2009).Another type of market risk arises in the process of delivering
production to the marketplace. The inability to deliver perishable products to the right
market at the right time can impair the efforts of producers. The lack of infrastructure
and welldeveloped markets makes this issue of timely delivery a significant source of
risk.
7.4 Personal risk
Finally, agricultural households, like the households of any other economic
entrepreneurs, are exposed to personal risks affecting the life and well-being of the
people who are employed on the farm. Agricultural households are also exposed to
asset risks from floods, cyclones and droughts and possible damage or theft of
production equipment and other farming assets (Satya, 2010).
8.0 REDUCE AND RECOMENDATION IN AGRICULTURE

23
8.1 Policy Directions And Recommendations
The policy gaps identified can be addressed by refocusing strategy, especially now
that government has shown the political will to prioritise risk management. Some
recommendations have been proposed, particularly those that will be relevant to the
agricultural sector. Enhance research and development (R&D) efforts and activities
are critical in providing the technological support for reducing the effects of El Nino-
induced climate change, especially in the agricultural sector. Special attention must
be paid to the following research areas:
1. To enhance national predictive capabilities, an interaction between
climate change, agricultural production and the relevant preventive and
mitigating mechanisms must be established, such as through an expert system
and computer modelling.
2. Research should continue on plant breeding and biotechnology for the
development of varieties resistant to water stress and related technologies, in
view of the possible limitation on water available for agricultural purposes in the
future.
3. Research on the development of precisionfarming technology should be
enhanced to ensure an efficient utilisation of resources, especially water in crop
production.
4. Future variability in climate will most likely result in different sets of
problems with regard to pests and diseases. An effective control method and
preventive measures under an entirely different farm environment must be
developed. Similarly, the change of farm environments necessitates the
development of related technologies for land and water management, crop
management and post-harvest management.
5. Emphasis should continue on the development of water-saving
technology, including the possibility for greater utilisation of recycled water, in
view of the impending shortages in irrigation water.

24
6. A concerted effort must be made to critically isolate the effect of climate
variability on agriculture through a standardised methodology. Such information
is an essential part of the predictive and early warning system to be developed.
8.2 Upgrade water-management capability
The existing water-supply infrastructure and water storage and distribution
system, particularly for agricultural purposes, has been fairly efficient. The adoption of
various water-conservation strategies is commendable, especially the efforts taken to
ensure high irrigation efficiency through the application of various water-saving
technologies, including that of water recycling. Nevertheless, the amount of water
wasted is still fairly high. Since irrigation water is heavily subsidised, it is inexpensive,
as such, people tend to waste it. In this regard, and to ensure that the water supply
can be maintained on a long-termbasis, the following strategies are proposed:
1. Introduce a new water-pricing policy according to which water's price
reflects its scarcity value. This policy would ensure efficient water use,
especially that of irrigation water.
2. To increase water availability at a time when no new sources of irrigation
water are anticipated, the government must increase the money allocated
annually for maintaining and improving the existing infrastructure and
minimising water waste during distribution and use. In the past, this type of
investment has not received sufficient support.
3. The current activities encouraging farm-level use of recycled water must
continue because these activities have been found to be effective in increasing
water-use efficiency.
8.3 Introduce drought action plan
While drought is not among the largest problems facing the agricultural sector,
the development of drought action plans would be helpful in times of severe drought.

25
The development of similar plans, such as the National Haze Action Plan, should be
considered. The proposed plan should at least include the following elements:
1. Identification of drought-prone areas.
2. Establishment of drought-monitoring procedures to improve prediction
and the degree of preparedness.
3. Establishment of a drought-prevention programme and response
strategy.
4. Inclusion of insurance and government-support strategies.
5. Identification of the key players needed to realise the action plan.
8.4 Introduce contingency-aid schemes for affected farmers
The following interventions are proposed:
1. A government-sponsored scheme should be introduced to provide aid to
affected farmers to protect their livelihood and welfare. This aid could take the
form of monetary assistance or farm inputs.
2. Crop insurance should be introduced to farmers, especially in regions
vulnerable to El Nino-related damage. Crop insurance would help farmers to
withstand the effect on farm production and income of climate abnormality.
3. Based on the prediction that climate change is impending, the
government must be able to suggest and implement mitigating measures to be
undertaken at the farm level, even to the extent of changing crop types. The
alternative crops introduced must be supported in terms of the availability of
planting materials, technology, credit facilities and marketing outlets
Fatal accident statistics reported to Malaysia’s Department of Occupational
Safety and Health (DOSH) show that many accidents in the agriculture sector
have occurred in oil palm plantations and were related to transportation. In

26
2005, there were 12 fatalities in oil palm plantations, 11 in 2006 and 16 in 2007.
The accidents were a result of the following conditions:
i) Workers were transported in the plantations using improper
means.
ii) The access roads in the plantations were poorly maintained and
are in poor condition.
iii) There was a lack of proper chemical handling procedures, thus
exposing workers to chemical risks.
An initiative to encourage oil palm plantations to redesign and modify the
tractors and trailer used to transport workers and chemicals around the premises was
undertaken to improve their safety. An initiative to encourage oil palm plantations to
redesign and modify the tractors and trailers used to transport workers and chemicals
around the premises was undertaken to improve their safety. Work on the plantation
also has become more organized because of the improvements. The result of these
eﬀort has increased both productivity and cost savings for the plantations.
8.5 Moving forward
To encourage more plantations to adopt the innovative solutions, an OSH
“carnival” in the agriculture sector was organized to increase awareness of good OSH
practices among workers but in a light-hearted manner. In addition, “employers and
employees involvement seminars” were conducted to inform both management and
workers within the oil palm plantations of the latest OSH developments, including the
sharing of good practices.
9.0 SUMMARY
Occupational Health Hazards of Agricultural Work in Developing Countries
EXPOSURE HEALTH EFFECT SPECIFICITY TO AGRICULTURE
(a) (b) (c)

27
Weather,
climate
Dehydration, heat cramps, heat
exhaustion, heat stroke, skin
cancer
Most agricultural operations are performed
outdoors
Snakes,
insects
Fatal or injurious bites and
stings
Close proximity results in high incidence
Sharp tools,
farm
equipment
Injuries ranging from cuts to
fatalities; hearing impairment
from loud machinery
Most farm situations require a wide variety of
skill levels for which workers have little formal
training, and there are few hazard controls on
tools and equipment
Physical labor,
carrying loads
Numerous types of (largely
unreported) musculoskeletal
disorders, particularly soft-
tissue disorders, e.g., back pain
Agricultural work involves awkward and
uncomfortable conditions and sustained
carrying of excessive loads
Pesticides Acute poisonings, chronic
effects such as neurotoxicity,
reproductive effects, and cancer
More hazardous products are used in
developing countries with minimal personal
protective equipment (PPE)
Dusts, fumes,
gases,
particulates
Irritation of the eyes and
respiratory tract, allergic
reactions, respiratory diseases
such asasthma, chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease,
and hypersensitivity
pneumonitis
Agricultural workers are exposed to a wide
range of dusts and gases from
decomposition
of organic materials in environments with few
exposure controls and limited use of PPE use
in hot climates.
(a) (b) (c)
• Skin diseases such as fungal
infections, allergic reactions,
and dermatoses
• Workers are in direct contact with
environmental pathogens, fungi, infected
animals, and allergenic plants

28
REFERENCES
[1] Abdul Hamid, A.R., Yusuf, W. Z. W. and Singh, B., (2003) “Hazards at construction
sites”.Proceedings of the 5th Asia-Pacific Structural Engineering and Construction
Conference (APSEC 2003). 26-28 August 2003 Johor Bahru, Malaysia.
[2] Gambatese, J. and Hinze, J., (1999) “Addressing construction worker safety in the
design phase:Designing for construction worker safety”, Journal of Automation in
Construction, Vol. 8, pp.643-649.
[3] "Hazardous Work". International Labour Organization. Retrieved December 26,
2012.
[4] International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC)
(2011). Children in hazardous work What we know What we need to do. International
Labour Organization. ISBN 978-92-2-124918-4. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
Biological
agents and
vectors of
disease
• Parasitic diseases such as
schistosomiasis, malaria,
sleeping sickness,
leishmaniasis, ascariasis, and
hookworm
• Workers have intimate contact with
parasites in soil, wastewater/sewage, dirty
tools, and
rudimentary housing
• Animal-related diseases or
zoonoses such as anthrax,
bovine tuberculosis, and rabies
(at least 40 of the 250 zoonoses
are occupational diseases in
agriculture
• Workers have ongoing, close contact with
animals through raising, sheltering, and
slaughtering
• Cancers, such as bladder
cancer caused by urinary
bilharzia contracted through
working in flooded areas in
North and Sub-Saharan Africa
• Agricultural workers are exposed to a mix of
biological agents, pesticides, and diesel
fumes, all linked with cancer

29
[5] "Fall Injuries Prevention in the Workplace". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health
Topic. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved July 12, 2012.
[6] "International Hazard Datasheets on Occupations (HDO)". International Labour
Organization. Retrieved December 26, 2012. "The International Hazard Datasheets
on Occupations is a multipurpose information resource containing information on the
hazards, risks and notions of prevention related to a specific occupation. The
datasheets are intended for those professionally concerned with health and safety at
work."
[7] "Machine Safety". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics. National Institute
of Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
[8] Harris, James R. and Richard S. Current. "Machine Safety: New & Updated
Consensus Standards". Prof Saf 2012 May; 57(5):50-
57.http://www.asse.org/professionalsafety/pastissues/057/05/F1Har_0512.pdf
[9] Ute Papkalla (December 2012). "Understimated production factor". D+C
Development and Cooperation/ dandc.eu.
[10] "Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention". Workplace Safety & Health Topics.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
[11] "Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention". Workplace Safety & Health Topics.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
[12] "Heat Stress". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics. National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 8 August 2012.
[13] "Cold Stress". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics. National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
[14] "Electrical Safety". NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topics. National Institute
of Occupational Safety and Health. Retrieved 7 August 2012.

30
[15] Hurst, P. Safer farms for safer food. In Health and Safety at Work: a trade union
priority. ILO, Geneva, Labour Education 126, 2002/1, pp 19-22.
[16] Consumers’ Association of Penang. Survey Report on Women Herbicide
Sprayers in Oil Palm Plantation: Working Conditions and Health Impact. 2004.
[17] Lees, F.P. (1996). Loss Prevention in the Process Industries: Hazard
Identification, Assessment and Control. Butterworth-Heinemann. 1-3.
[18] Bubbico, R., Ferrari, C. and Mazzarotta, B. (2000). Risk Analysis of LPG Transport
by Road and Rail. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 13. 27-31.
[19] Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). (1992). Transportation of Hazardous
Materials: Highway Routing. Federal Register. 57(169). 39522-39533.
[20] Carson, P. and Mumford, C. (2003). Transportation of Chemicals. Loss
Prevention Bulletin. 170. 11-17.
[21] Liberty Risk Services Malaysia. (1997). Preliminary Risk Assessment for the
CCM’s Proposed Rail Transportation of Ammonia.

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