3. .,.. ) .'• ,I , •, ;. :) : .
Maria Christine N. Halili
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Philippine Copyright, 2004
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Philippine History
Fir&t Edition 2004
ISBN 971-23-3934-3
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5. Acknowledgment
Above aU, the author wishes to thank the Almighty God for
the blessings and guidance He has given her.
For the realization of this venl'ure, .~he would like to express
her sincere gratitude to the following author.~ whose works were
referred to in the text:Dr.Sonia Zaide,Professor RenataConstantino,
Professor Teodoro Agoncillo, Professor Milagros Guerrero, Dr.
William Henry Scott, Dr. Raymundo Punongbay~~n, and Mr. Hector
Santos,aswell ilS to New DayPublishersforallowingher to include
in this book, the topic about the Code of Kalantiaw.
Special thanks to Atty. P~ntaleon Ownlao, MIS.Liberty Santos-
Dumlao, Mr. Daniel Ortega, Mr. Ray Naguit and Ms. Julita Javier
for providing some data materials for the book a~ well as to Dr.
Norma MoraIa, Deanof the College of Arts and SciencesofBulacan
State UniveJSity fur her unending support.
Special rnention.isgiven to her relativesand friends particular!}'
Mr.Angel Recto, Ms. Mary Mayoyo, Ms. Josefina Ochoa, Ms. Je!lsica
Chosas, t..b. Marissa Enriquez, and Mr. 'Ricardo Capule for their
invaluable help in various ways. Finally, tp her parents, Mr. Romeo
and Attv. Lolita Halili; her brothers, Antonio and Fre<:lerick; her
sister:>, Annabelle and Merhama for theil: inspiration and prayers.
M.C.N.H
iii

7. Preface
Knowing the inipre_,;,;ions left by past generatiom; tdls us that
valuable lessons can be learned from hi.-;tory. The transition of the
Filipino society hoin the earlyphases of tcchnologic;al development
up to its preparation towanls glol>a lb:<~tion definitely reflects the
chara<"ter of the local inhabitants as wtdl as the culture thathall been
d~vtdoped after a long period of time.
This college text titled Phi/ippill£' Hi,;fory tra~·es the early
beginnings of the country's nah.tral ~vironment. its people and
culture, shaped and changed by socioeconomic and geopolitical
conditions.
Thi.~ book intends to incorporate the notable events that took
p l~ce in our country; unfurling the a~pirations of the prople and
unfohling the possibilitie.~ oJ the future.
S<:holars of hi,;tory have already written quite a number of
specialized studies about thP. Philippines. The purposeof th.i:>book
is to introduce the pa::;t, based on reC'E'nt re~carches.
Specifically, this mod~t cont:ril>utionlo thestudy ofthe nation's
history haq iffi mission of disseminating the ide~Is prt>Vailing in the
socwty under varied circumstances and promoting the nationalistic
spirit among people, to fulfill the concept of what a Filipino should
be as defined and lived by our noblE' heme~
v
M.C.N.H
Guigullto. Bulacan

9. Course Outline
I. Objectives
A. General Objectives
At the end of the course, the students are expected to:
1. Gather information about Philippine history marked
by important events, places. dates a1•d p ersons
forming the growth of !locictics and distinction of
culture;
2. Understand the internal and external pressures
involved in the tra~ition of societies and culture
found in the country at different periods of time;
3. Appreciate the accomplishment:> offellowcountrymen
for the weliare of the nation;
4. Re.ali7.eand avoid thl!'mistakescommitred in the past
to guide the present and prepare the future; and
5. Develop a sense of identity and pride in beir>g a
Filipino.
B. Specific Objectives
At the end of the midtenn period, the students ~re
expected to:
1. Find out the meaning and the task of hi~tory;
2. Be awareof the theories inundeiStandinghistoryand
to relate them to J?aSt events and curTent issues;
3. Detennine the sources of history and the historical
errors;
4. Know the briefhistory of Philippine arthaeology;
5. ~ familiar with·tht: wuntry's geological form3tlon,
gevgraphy, and natural resources;
6. Be able to identify and describe the v11.st majority and
the indigenous people in the an;hipelago; and
7. Identify the circumstances surrounding the
colonintion of the archipelago and the influences
brought about by foreign interaction.

10. Attheend ofthe final tenn. the students areC)(pccted
to:
1. Become aware of the values and beliefs of thepeople
shaped and changed by socioeconomic and
geopolitical influencesbroughtbywest~mcoloniz.els;
2. Analy7.e the factors that gave birth to Filipino
nationalism;
3. Undenstand the struggle of the people for reforms and
national independence during the Spani.~h colonial
era;
4. Know the historical ba~is for the country's cli!irn on
North Homeo;
5. Lookinto the circumstances surrumldingthebirth of
the Filipino nation;
6. Understand the reasons behind the formation of
militant groups;
7. Discuss the issues and problem,.; of the country after
the recognition of the country's sovereignty;
8. Reevaluate the policies of the past adm.inistratio~;
9. Relate the events in other countries with the
Philippines; and
10. Assess the socioeconomic and cultural development
of the country through the years.
II. Course Contents
A. Knowing Philippine History
1. Meaning of History
2. Tiw Task ofHistory
3. Theories in Understanding llistory
4. Sour~ of History
5. Brid H~tory of Philippine Archaeology
6. Persisting Problems
7. Unhistorical Data
viii

11. 8 . The Natural Setting and lt5 People
l. How tht> Earth was in the Beginning
1.1 Based 01 Philippint> I,pgc.nd!> and Myths
1.2 Scientific Expl.mation
2. Geological Foundation
2.1 Geology and Prehistory.
2.2 I.,md Formation
3. The Archipelago's ::-.I;Hne
3.1 Pre-Spanish to Prest>nl
·1. Gt>Ography and Re;ourt."t'S
4.1 Location
4.2 Climate
4.3 Topography
4A flor~t and l'auna
5. The Filipino
5.1 TraiL~ and Values
5.2 Theork-s on the Origin o( the Hlipinos
C. fi lipino Society and Culture During lhe l"rc-Sp.tnish
Period
1. Early Period$ ofC ultural Develuprnt>nt
1.1 Stone Ag~:
12 MdJI Age
1.3 Age of Contact
D. Spanish Conquest and the Coloni7.ation of the
Philippines
1. fn S.:arch of Nc:-w l.ands
2. Magellan's l'ew Route to the East
"!. Rediscovery of the l'hilippines
4. Magellan's Voyage to the Archipelago
'5. Post·Magellan expeditions
6. Towards lhe J>acification of the Nahv€'~
7. Early Sp anish Settlemenll>
IX

12. 8. l.nstmments of Exploitation
9. Political Reorganization
F.. Towards the Jlispanization of the Natives
1. Economy
2. Education
3. Arts and Science
4. Rt'ligion
F. Foreign Affairs
1. Sino-Philippine Relations
2. Dutch Attempts
3. Briti!;h Ckcupation
C. Struggle for Rights ~nd freedom
1. Revolt of Lakandula and Sulayrnan
2. First Pampanga Revolt
3. !fagat Salama! and the Tondo Conspiracy
4. Magalat':; Revolt
.S. Revolt of the Irrayas
'
6. Rt'volt of Tamblot
7. Revolt uf Bankaw
8. !Wvolt of Ladia
9. Revolt of Oabm1
10. Maniago'11 Ri'Vult
11. Malong's Rl'V<>lt
12. Revolt ofGum,lpus
lJ. Revolt of Pechv Alma~an
14. Sumoroy's RPVoll
15. Tapdr 's Revolt
16. Dagnhor's Revolt
17. Silang's l~evoll
18. Palaris's Re,•olt
19. Revolt in Defcns~ of the Spanish Constitution
l(

13. 20. Revolt of the Bayot Brothers
21. RP.ligious Revolt of Hermano Pule
22. Muslim Y..'ars
23. Factors that Gave Rise to Nabona lism
24. Propaganda Movement
25. The Katipunan
26. Revolution of1896
27. Rivalry in the Peatipunan
28. The Biak-na-Bato Republic
29. Spanish-American War
30. Filipino-American Collaboration
H. The Birth of a Nation
1. Proclamation of Philippine lndependcnre
2. "Battle" of Manit~
3. The Mdloloo Republk
I. The American Rule
1. War of Philippine independence from the United
St.ltes
2. The Philippines under the American Civil
Government
3. Our American Heritage
4. Philippine Independent Church
5. Tht> Colonuns
6. l...md Tenure System
7. The First l abor Groups
8. Communist Party of the Philippii•es
9. Sakdalism
10. Philippine l'olitic-5 During the Era
J. Commonwealth Period
1. The Tran~ilion
2. Decades of Unrest
3. Entry of Japanese Imperial Forces
xi

14. K. Th(' Japanes~ Occupation
l. }apan<.'SC Martial Law
:?.. The Second Philippine Republic
J. Resistance and Reslo•·<~tinn
l. The Conditions of the Republk Under Different
Administrations
l. Milnud A. J{ox<ls
2. Elpidio Quirino
3. R..1mon Magsaysay
4 Carlos P. Garcia
5. Diosdddo Mac.1pagal
6. Ferdinand E. Milrcos
7. Corazon C. Aquino
8. fidel V. Ramos
9. Joseph Estrada
10. Gloria Mncapag;~l-/ rroyo

15. {j;~~?~J,lG.Philippine History
I. Understanding History ....................................................... 1
2. Source.~ offlistory ................................................................ 4
3. Unhistorical Data ................................................................ S
CM!'Ier Test No. ! .................................... .................................. 13
ti'~··(~):;r;,~.N,aturalSettingand its Peuple
1. How th~ Earth Was in the & ginning .......................... 1(,
2. Geological Foundation ...................................................... 19
3. The Archipelago's N~me................................................... 21
4. Geography and R!!SOU<(;I!$ ................................................ 22
5. Country's Climat~ ............................................................. 30
6. The Filipino People ......................................................... 30
7. 'Iheori~s on th!! Origin of Filipinos.................................. 34
Chapter T<'~t No.2....................................................................... 36
~~:~,®rr.~:colonial Philippines
1. Cultural Evolution of the Early rilipinos ....................... 40
2. Traditional Filipino Communitie$ .............................. ...55
Chapter Test :-Jo. 3 ......................................................................65
xiii

16. 'i!~~.!')panisb Era
1. In Search ofNew Land~ ....................................................69
2. Mdgellan's New Route to the l:iast ................................... 70
::!. Rediscovery of the Philippines ......................................... 72
4. 'lht> Sjlanish Conquest of the lo;lands .............................. 78
5. ·Inwards the Hispanization of the Natives ..................... 86
6. Chinese in the Philippi.n~ ................................................97
7. More Europeans in the Islands ....................................... 100
Chapter Test No. ·L ................................................................... 104
•i'~.(~).~t.~t_:~~lcfor Rights and Freedom
1. Revolt of Lakandula and Sulayman .............................. 110
2. First Pampanga Revolt .................................................... 110
3. The Tondo Conspiracy ..................................................... 111
4. MagaiM's Revolt ............................................................... 112
5. Revolt nf the IKorot11 ......................................................... 112
6. Revolt of the lrr.yas ......................................................... 112
7. Revolt of Tambl11t ............................................................. 113
8. .Bankaw's Revolt ............................................................... 113
9. The t{evolt of t,l<.ila .......................................................... 114
10. Revolt of Dabao ................................................................ 114
11. Sl•moroy's Revolt ............................................................. 115
12. ..laniago's Revolt .............................................................. 115
13. Andrel! :vfalong's Revolt .................................................. 116
H . 1he Revolt of Gumapo! ................................................... 117
15. Revolt of PL'<iro Almazan ................................................ 117
16. Tapar'!i Revolt ................................................................... ll8
17. Dagohov's Revolt ............................................................. 118
18. Sil<~ ng's- Revolt ........................ ......................................... 119
)CiV

17. 19. Palaris's Revolt ........................................................... 120
20. Basi Revolt ..................................................................... 121
21. R~!volt in Dl;.>fense of th.. Sp~ni~h Cono;titution ............ 121
22. R~!volt of the Bayot BroH•ers ........................................... 122
23. Religious Revolt of Ik•nnant<.> Pule ................................ 122
24. Muslim Var:s .................................................................... 123
25. The Rise of Filipilw Nationalism ................................... 127
26. Propaganda Movern~nt ................................................... 132
27. The Katipunan ............................................................. 137
28 Remlutivn of1896............................................................ 142
29. Riv.1lry in the K<~lipunan ................................................. 147
30. The Biak-na-B;"~to R.-public ............................................ 151
31. TheSpanish-Americon War ........................................... 153
32. Filipino-American Coll~boration ..........,....................... 155
Chapter T!!st No. 5 ............................................................... 158
1. Proclamation of Philippine Independence ................... 162
2. The Incredulous Battle of Manila .................................. 163
3. The Malulos Republic ...................................................... 165
Chapter Test No.6.................................................................... 170
1. War of Philippint' Independence from the U.S............ 174
2. A Government under America ...................................... 179
3. The Amerkan legacy ...................................................... 188
4. Philippine Independent Church .................................... 192
!'5. The Colorums ................................................................... 193
6. Land Tenure System..............................................,.. 195
XV

18. 7. The First Labor Groups ......... ................................. ... 196
8. Th.e Conullunist Party of the Philippines ..................... 198
9. Sakdalisrn .......................................................................... 199
Chapter Test No.7..................................................................... 201
~~®.S:?.J;ttmflnwealth Pcrifld
I. Th~ Transition .................................................................. 208
2. ~ade of Unrest .............................................................. 211
3. Entry ofJapane~e Imperial Force~ ................................. 212
Ch.lptt!r Tt>:>t No. 8.................................................................... 220
(~~;@,~eJapanese Occupatifln
l . fapanese MartiaI L.1w ...................................................... 223
2. Life During the Wartime Yl>ars ....................................... 225
3. Reforming thl! Philippine Government ........................ 229
4. Th<> Second lwpublic of thl· Philippines ....................... 2.30
.5. He.slstance and Rl'!ltoration ............................................. 235
Chapter Test No.9..................................................................... 245
(iit;IIU!a'Wi>Jiii:< ~0 The Re)Jubllc··......w~~~-·~....,.:....~.
1. Roxas Administration (l '146-48} ..................................... 250
2. Quirino idministration (1948·53).................................. 2.'>4
3. Magsaysay Admini~tration (195..1-57) ............................ 258
4. C.lrcia Administration (1'157-61) .................................... 261
5. Macapagal Administration (1961-65) ............................ 262
6. :vl;trc<>s Administration {1965·1986)............................... 265
. 7. Aquinoidministr,,tion (1986-199::!} .............................. 279
8. Ramos Administration (1992·1998) ............................... 283
wi

19. 9. Estrada Administration (1998-2001) ............................... 287
'10. Arroyo Admini.~tration (2001-present) .......................... 298
Chapter Test No. 10................................................................... 306
Rderen<:es .................................................................................. 317
Index ........................................................................................... 321
xvii

21. ~1.-l!i.;.'h''·""
Knowing Philippine History
1. Understanding History
In its broadc~t meaning. history is th~ :c;tudy ofpast even.t.~. It
generally presents the known past. What is unknown is yet to be
retrievt'd. The recording and analysis of t!.><p<!rienct's of a society
comprise the totality of a people's history.
As a historical being. man responds to the situation placed
before him and thus his acts arebased onhi.-; thoughts. The society's
way of facing the challenges depending IWO" ils capabilities
uncovers the pattem of the society's history. Th~ thalkngenmjrespol•>i! .
J}J!'P.'Y..Of the British historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee.11889-1975) is
rooted on this presumption.
The 12-volumc series of ASt11dyofHistory (1934·61) is based on
Toynbcc's thesis that hi.Gtory reflects the progrcss ofciviIization.'i and
societies. He viewed the past as a succession of civilizations rather
than political entities. Bast'd on his hypothesis, the f~ilure of a
civilil:ation to survive was the result of its inability to respond to
challenges.
Mankind's appxoach in 'coping with challenges determines
history. l:ndcr variou~ circumRtancc:;, a power will wi~h lo extend
its influence at the expense ofanother power. The threatened power
will then reevaluate the challenge and adopt the cowse of action to
curb the strategy of the opposing power.
· To illustrate. in the stntggle ofdauntless Filipinos to regainlost
rights and freedom during the Spanish era, the propagandists and
revolutionaries responded to colonial oppression by resisting. The
challenge was post-d by the colonial subjugation of the FihpinQS,
generally characterized by injustice and corruption. The response
was defia'nce to the prevailing ntle.
Man's actions are not just involuntary movements especially
when time allows him to plan his next action. These n:'Spon.'ieS pa;.~
through the process of re.SOnlng and analysis.Often, he d eal" with
other people to discuss on how to answer,, certain situation.
1

22. Associated with the afort>mentioned premises, the c'Xchangr
lh~ory of..AlY,in 5q.(f. may be clltefully thought about. His ~xchangt>
theory refers to the systematic statemt<nt uf principle~ that govern
the exchange of goods between individuals, between groups,
bctween organizations and even between nations. This is bast>d on
the idea of reciprocjty.
There arc some motivational forccs lound in the society Jffccting
the aclions of people involved in the siluation. A,~a.<e in point is the
early fonn of trading among the native inhabitants called l'arter.
Alliances of people, conununities as wt>ll as nation~ are also rooted
in the idea of intel"(;hange.
One of the most prominent thinkers of the 19'" century was
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Ileggl_ (1770-1831), a Gennar> idealist
philosopher.Hegel conceived thesubject mattero£philosophy tobe
TE"alily a5 a who!~. This reality he reftmed to as the Absolute Spirit.
For him, the task of philosophy is to chart the development of the
Absolute Spirit.
Hegel's role ufhi~toriciJI man follows a princople,whi<h he called
Wr/tgit-.1 or world 5pirit, which embodies id~als l1ke p<~tdotism,
heroism and unHy. Since historical individuals are ideals and man
follows his ideal, this thought which is guided by a particuliir ideal
becom!!S what H~gcl called as Geisteswis;;•Hchnjtm or the world of
spirit of thought. Thi:< nr~a of thought is the thcfi.i~. Thi-; combines
with a particular !liluation or malter called Natunvis.senchaften, the
antithe~i.s ur the complete opposite of the Geiste..~wissenchaft~•l- By
thecombir>ationof thesis and antith~·sis. man achieves thesynthe~is,
which is the historical reality.
Applylng this theory in hist(>ry, thl•rc were guerilla fighters ir>
World War 11 who were guidl•d by their sense of duty and
responsibility to lead the people during the warfare. The situ.1tion
was the Japanese invasion. The combination of their thoughts like
parriotism and heroism rerulted to their historica l;~cts, m.tnifesled
through their deeds and exploits in the battles that Wl!re fought
against the Japanese forces during the war era.
In understanding histo~~,JJ;_Othei..~Jii?!Y,I.Q be consi<lered is
_eco>Wn!ic theory of Karl M&'rx, anotifer German ph•losopher. He
asserts that the prevailing economic ~ystem determ.ines the form of
societal organiT.aion and the political and intdlectual hi~tory olthe
epoch, whlch thus attributeactions andev;,nts in history to economic
2

23. motives. Th~ struggl~ to maintain !if(' is the most enduring
motivation for any human activity.
To cite anin.~tance, the intensification of inter-island contacts
and theincreasingspecialization in craftsmanship by early dwellt>rs
were brou~ht about by economic consideration. Cenrurie:; of trade
and personal relations with Southeast Asian neighbors led to the
enrichment of Filipino life and culhtrc. A~ more d wcllcrs trildcd with
foreig n m~rchRnts, influences in the field of commerce, scienn~. ·
religi<m, languag~ and the arts becam.... 1'lOre t>vict.,.!'lt as they were
transmitted to other members of the society.
Another example is thE' Spanish colonial t>ra. [t !oils !Jet'n !>aid
that tht! three primary motives for vastexploration oflands were for
God, gold and glory, but the main incentive w.ls for economic
reasons. Colonies are important sources of raw materials and
opporiUnillt'S fur invt'Stment. Spain was at th~ height of its vower
in the 16"' century since it exercised political and economic control
in its several colonies.
The Conummist Mtulifesto written by Marx which contains the
stM<!mcnt of principles of the Communist League, embodies the
rnateriali.<.t concept ofhistory or historical rnateriaIism. TheMattif"~ ro
states that the history ofsociety is a history ofstru~;glt'S between the
ruling class and the oppressed masses.This is based on the tht•ory of
scirntificsocinlroolution of Marx, wherein hestated that whensodety
wa5 s till primitive; there wa~ social equilibrium bl•l wilh the
introduction OfJ.l~'.Y_i_deas .an<J_ .t<?QIS of doing .thiJlgs, man became
greatly c.oncemed with marerfal wealth. This led to a da5s stnaggle
between the workers (proletariat) and the capitalists (bourge<Jisie).
from thesepremises, Milrxconcluded that the capitalistclils~ would
beoverthrownby theworkingclass through revolution and replaced
by a da~!lles.~ society.
Another approach to historical stud ies is the method of
histo riO)>raphy developed by Ferna nd Braud11l (1902-1985),
considered the fa ther of rustorical s tructuralism. Accord ing to
Braude[, tn achieve a " tot~ ! history," all aspc<l!l of man's past are to
be integrated. This new approach involve.~ the ~tudy of history in its
Iotalview made possible by exllmining hecircumst11nces untlerlying
such political, ~conomic, social, and cultural ~;v~nts.
P/:lllipplne history is a people's history. A!< dE-fined by R~enato
Constantino,. history is "the recorded strugglt> of people for ev-ei:.
3

24. increa:;ing freedom and for newer and higher rPilli7.ation of the
human person." It is not about the ~tory of man as the indiv,dua!,
but man as the associated man. Man interacts with nature ami with
other men, thtL~ consciously changing his own per:;pective and to
some extent, the sy~tem of environment.
Based on Constantino's supposition that Phi!ippilll.' history is a
stQry uf ~truggle, the study has to be rC.15Se55ed with a n11tion~list
perspective in the interestof objectivity. This is to allow themodl!m
Filipino to fmm a cl~ar picltJre of his ancestors' conditions and
sentim•mts (rom the puintof view ofFilipino writers to «>rrect some
h1storie<•l impressions made by colonial historiography.
History is not merely the work of heroes and great men as
elucidated by Constantino in his book, 'rile Philippines: A Past
Rt>uisitt•d. He pointed out lhal lhe masses of individuals as wdl as
the social forcc5 gener11ted by wlle-ctive li"e~ and struggles have to
be- includt"d. Men must struggle togt!ther to sun:ivt? the exigencies
of natural or social forces int~rvening their development. The
associated man, as part of the society, through their collective lives
make history. Without a society, history i,; highly improhahle.
Constantino further menlionPd lhilt history·is not necess~rily
presentinga long, unbrokenchain ofevents. It illustratt!smovement
ofJ>eopleand idea!<twer timeand space. They mayeven be in conflict
with one <~nother. It is now the ta:~k of thl.' histori<m to we11ve
particular events into •l totill view w that these experiences can be
.summed up and analyzed.
1hus, the study of hi~<tory c;111 ~<erw ~:<a glidt• to present and
succeeding generations In facing the ch.•lk•nge-s of the tim~s. By
projecting the people's aspirations, a people's history will en~bl~ us
tograsp the direction of the country':~ devclopmtontand identity the
factors that impedt? real progress. Truly, tl:w need for a real pcop.lc's
historybecomes moreurgent as we Filipino$search for tntly Filipino
solutions to the problems besetting our counhy
l!. Sources of History
Sources of inlorm.Hion provide the evidence from which the
historian obtain.-;facts about the past. Jnwriting history. I h~ historia.n
not only relies on pa~l thoughts rather reen~cts it in·the context of
analyzing the documents and other records left. Thi~ is illl
indispensable coc1dition in the quest for historical facts.
4

25. Source~ of history may beclassified as primary and secondary.
Primary SOIH(es are those that have w itnessed the event that took
place or have been part of the incident being studied. The~e include
written records (e.g. nan atiYes, manuscriprn, public documents,
letters, diaries). fos.<;il~. a.rtifac~ and testimony from living witnes.o;es.
On theOtherhand,,;eoondary sources have notbeen part of the cvPnt
being considered such as n:.agazines, n,ewspapers, pamphlets,
.typescripLo;, and actides written about the primary sources.
.1'rehi~tory, a term givcn by 19'1
' cenfury French ~ho Iars, covers
the pa:;t human experiences prior to theexistenceofwrittenrecords.
The basic source of prehistory is archaeology, which is a sub-
discipline of anthropology (i.e., the study of all a~pects ol human
life and culture). Archaeology is the study of past cultures.
Archaeologists study artifacts (maleria lequipment made by people
of the past like tools, pottery. and jewelry) and fos.~ils (preserved
remains of plants, animals, and p~ple of a remote geological past).
Archaeological excavation refers to the systema1ic recovery and
study of these pieces of material evidence.
Ardaeology gives us an idea how things might have looked
like at a particular time. Cultural artifacts i:nay be looked at as
<x.mcrete expressions of the and~nt ~ttlers' way in dealing with the
problem of adapt<Jtion to the environment. Their achievements in
material and social culllre show mu~h of their behavior,. values,
and beliefs a.-, welll'S their in~_llcctual maturity.
Unfortunately, the reconstruction ofPhilippineprehistory will
always be incomplete. ~any of the objects recovered have
disintegra1cd over time. Materials like wood, barks of trees, and
clothing decompose easily particularly in a tropical climate such a.~
ours. Dcvlces.mad~stone. cJ~vsoil,.metal andthelike,can survive
.most iikeiy i-h~ socij?ty that created II and thtis; bepresently known
through the efforts of the archaeologist,;.
Early archaeological undertakings in the PhJlippines began with
the first major expedition inJ~l}~.!!.~.<;tunan,fi..L~ ~.1:9e..itl
.the islandof MafinsuCJUeando.thersite~~in CentralPhilippine~. Most
of hi~ collections are now with the ~usee de 1' homrne.inl'.:uis, and
some in :l:Jdlo<!:!:i~t There were also sporadic ~ds and pot-hunt.ing
act i vih ~s in various parts of the. ~rshipelag()_, prior to th i~ major
archaeological excavation. FeodorJagor,a German tTav~>..ler, reported
having encountered a priest in Naga, Camarincs S~r who collected
artifacts from ancient graveyards.
5

26. Dr. Antonio de Morga, in his Suusos de La~ ls/as Filipinas
(Historical Events of the Philippine rslands), deY.ribed the and enl
artifacts that were re<:overed by farmers in Luzon, particularly in
llocos, Pangasi.nan, Pampanga,and Manil~ . These were day vessels
of di>rkbr<l"'"n color and some marked with characters. These items
are no longer being manufactured in the i.~lands.
Jose Ri7.al, the country'sforemosthero wasnott>d to havl' foWld
ground and polished stone tools during his exile in Dapitan,
Zamboanga del Norte.
The second major archaeological exploration was carried out
by Cad Guthe from the University of Michigan (rom 1922 to 1925.
With his team, they conducted several test-digli in Palawan, »ohol,
Korthern ilindamo and other places in Central Philippiru!s. The
purpose of thi.~ :Michigan archaeological expedition was to collect
Chinese ceramics exported to the Philippines from China, to look
intn theearly Filipino-Chineserelationship. The collection, resulting
from !he cxcavation, consisted of more than 30 cubic tons of
prt>historicartifacts. 'They are now keptat the UniversityofMichigan.
From 1926 to the outbreak of the Second World War, much of
the archaoological discoveries were done by Henry Otley Beyer
(1883-1966) born in Edgewood. Iowa who halt married Lingayu
Gambuk, the 15year-old daughterofa powerfullfugaochiefin1910.
The dls<:overy of a major archaeological site in Novaliches in
192£>, resulting from the cortstructton of a dam for Manila's water
supply, was Beyer's first archaeological resench in the country. In
1947, Beyer published the Outline ReviewofPhi11ppit11' ArdllJrology by
1,</QIIri,; and Prwinces, a pion~ring research activity in Philippine
prehistory.
Larry Wilson, a mining prospector, assisted St-yer in !he
exploration of numt>rous Pleistocenesites in Northern Luzon. It was
»eyer who first disdO!>ed the importance of Palawan in the search
for early man in the Philippines.
All over the archipelago, the fOS&ilized remains of large
mammals that roamed the islands during the Middle 1-'ld~ toccne
Epoch have been discovered in the 1920s. The fossils o( el epha~,
!>tegodons, rhinoceroses,and deerhave beendiscovered inCagayao,
Pangasinan, Rizal, Panay Island and in Northeastern Mindanao.The
elephos, ~tegodon, and rhinoceros are now extinct in the COUltry.
6

27. In Cabarmyan Island in Lingay~n Gulf, fossilized tooth of a
dwarf elephant was reported to have been retrieved. This specie of
d war£ele-phantwassubsequently identified and named f.lt>p/11:s beyeri
afler H. OtiP.y lleyer, considered as the Father of Philippine
Arch~wlogy and Pn•history. Von Koonigswald, ~ palfontologist
known for his work on Java Man, gave the name for this specie.
After the SecondWorldWar. increased in~i in ltte prehistoric
beginning!'! of ~ Philippines evolved. Archaeology w~ later on
introduced as part of the curriculum at the Univer!;ily of the
Philippines.
Wilhelm G. Solheim nconducted the first post·warexcavations
in :vtasbate lsl,md from 1951 to 1953. Alfredo Evangcli~;ta and E.
Ar~enio Manut~l a~"isted him in undertakk•g ehe work.
Behvcen 1950 and 1954, Solheim was the reSt~a rch associate at
the Museum ofArchaeology .1nd 13thnology of the University of the
Fhilippines and the librarian and curator of the American Historical
Collection of tht- U.S. embassy in Manila. His earliest works in
Philippine archaeology was in 1951, w ith the publications on
.uch.1cological fieldwork in San1'arciso, Tayabas (nowQuezon). Ilis
activities ino uded extensive field experience in Southea..~t Asia, as
well as the various islands of the Pacific Region.
from 1958 to 1962, Robert B. foxa.nd Allredo Evangelista, both
working for the National :1uscum ot the Philippines, undertook
series oftest-digs in thecave~ ofCagraray,Aihayand Bato, Sotsogon.
Tradt-ware ceramics from China and l1•<1lland were recovered in
Calatagan.
Fox led the TabonCaves Archaeological Project inSouthwestern
l'alawan, resulting in the unearthingof late Plei!ltocene human f0$ils
and stone tools and implements. Charcoal materials analyzed by
carbon-1·1 technique revealed the presence of man in the area between
2.2,000 to 24,000 years ago.
Human fossil bones of at lea•l three individuaL<: were found.
Th~e ind udL'<.i a large frontalbone, witl1the urows and part of the
nasal bonl'S a5 well as fragments ofa mandible and teeth. Classified
asmodem manor1/amo Sapims, these are theearliest known human
ulhabitants of the Philippines.
Ne il Mcintosh of the University of Sydney in Australia
undertook the 11nalysis and X·ritys of the T<tbon skullcap and
mandibll! in 1975. Clt'titils showed the presenct~ of a thin f~sure on
7

28. the right side of the skull whlch according to Mclnt~xh, mayhave
been the cause ofdeath. of th.~ individual. lt was probably d ue to a
fall or a bump on the head. .
Other .minor digginp;; and explorations followed in the 1960s,
particularly in the southern regions of the Visayas and ~1indanao,
led by anthropologists of the University ofSan Carlos !n Cebu and
Silliman University in Dumaguete City. Negros Oriental. In 1963-
64, Marcelino Maceda ofSan Carlos Univefsity, te<-hnically a~~istcd
by the National Museum, conducted archaeological excavations at
Kulaman Pl;>teau in Bukidnon and recovered a numberoflitnestone
burialjars. North of this place, Samuel Briones,a graduate sludent
atSilliman University reported the presence of limestoneburialjars
in several caves he visited in 1966.
In Cebu, Karl Huttcrer and Rosa Tenazas of San Carlos
Uni"ersity rt"Covered prehi.~toric artifacts in the middle o(Cebu City.
Tcnazas carried out archaeological cxcavatians in the Laguna area
and recovered valuable materials, mo~tly 10'' and 14'" century
artifacts in1968-69.
ln Lemery, Batangasa group of students from Ateneo de Manila
conducted archaeological diggin.gs from 1968to 1970. The teamwas
composed ofCecilia Y. Locsin, Maria Isabel Ongpin, and Socorro P.
Paremo.
ln the 1970s, the National Museum of the Philippines, led by
its chiefarch~eologist Robert B. Fox, begansystematic archaeological
work inCagayan Valley. This marked the ardent quest for prehistoric
man in the area. Comparable to those previously reported animals
(such a,; clcphas, stegodons, and rhinoceroses), new fossil
di.'icoveries ~uch as those of crocodiles, giant torloi~e.q, pigs, and
deer w~re found in Cagayilfl.
In 1971, Karl H utterer rt'turned to the site he previously
explored in Basey River in Southem Samar. The following year,
Wilhehn Solheim II and Avelino Legaspi d ug in the area of Davao
del Sur. They found tools made from large shells, manufactured
through a flaking technique slmllar to that used in making stone
tools.
3. !,;.nhii!itorical Data
TherE' are some narratives that have beenpreviously accepted
in Philippinehistoryas fact5 but laterwerefound outtobehistorical
8

29. errors. It is to the credit of manyhistorians who investigate and take
position of what they have discovered out in their careful research.
These unhistorical accounts include the Maragtasstory, th4! Code of
Kalantiaw. and the legend of Princess Urduja. "
¥ara.gtas is the story about the ten Malay datu fron}.!klmeo
who settled into the Philippine islands. According to the Maragtas,
at aromtd 12'>0 A.D., ten Bomean dufu and their famil.lcs left their
kingdom in search of new homes across the ~ea to escape the
merciless ruleofSultan Makatunaw. Ledby Datu Puti, ~e Bomeans
landed in the island ofPanay and bought the lowlandli from the Ati
king named Marikuda in exchange lor one gold snduk (native hat)
and a long gold necklace for Queen Maningwantiwan. After the
land ~le and pactof&iendship. theAtiswentto thehiUs.llu! Malay
datus seltled in the lowlands.
Datus Puti, Balensusa, a~td Dumangsil sailed northward to
Lw.on and landed in the region around Lake Bonbon (Ta.tl). There
they built their !!t!ttlements. Dumangsil and Balcn.<>u~a's families
occupied other neighboring regions now known as laguna and the
Bicol Peninsula. Datu Puti left for Borneo after he knew that his
men were leading pcaC4!fullive!;.
The other seven.datu,stayed in Panay. They divided the island
into three districts. Hantik (now A~tiquc) was under patu
~umakwel. Qatu Paiburong ruled Irong·lrong (now Iloilo). Datu
~angkaya governed Aklan (now Aldan and Capiz).
Led by D;~tu Suroakwel, a politicill con.ft.'<icration ofbarangays
(Madya-as) was formed for purposes of protection and dose family
relations.The story as told by Fr. Franci~co Santaren, furlherd~ribes
the expan.<tion of the Malay ~el tlers to other parts of the archipelago.
The legal code written by Datu Sumakwel also known- as the
Maragtas Code was previously known as the uoldcst known written
body of laws" in the Philippines.
/ William Henry Sc:ott made the stldy of prehistoric source
rnah!tiaIs for thestudyofPhilippine history, thesubjectofhlsdoctoral
di~rtationatthe UniversityofSantoTomas. Hedefendedhi..'> paper
before a panel of well-known historians on Jvne 16, 1968. The
pa.rn!l.ists includeTeodoro Agonclllo, Gregorio Zaide, Mercede~ Grau
Santamaria, Nicolas Zafra, and Father Horacio de la Costa, SJ.
9

30. The researchofScottshowed that Maragtas isnot a p:rchispank
documentbuta book written by Pedro Monteclaro, a localhistorian
of P;miy. Montedaro's publisher in 1907, noted that thi.:; .Maragtas
should notbe considered as facts, all of which are accurate and true.
The pt1blli>her poin~ out that many of the author's data do not
tally with what we hear fromold men. The ;tuthorwrote that two of
hi!; m.a.nuscripts were rottenand hardlylegible.I'oneofthesewritten
materials was preserved for future generationli. He made no
explanation aboul thedatea~ wella.~ theoriginofhis sources.Neither
were there claims toclarity. There ill no traditionofrecording hL<>tory
nor !~gal decision in Panay during the precolonial times. Thus the
Maragtas could neither support the presence of any pre-Spanish
Confodt.rntinn oflv!Jidiaas (also spelled as Madyaas) nor uphold tM
exiltcnce of a Sumakwel Code.
Previously regarded a~ the :;econd oldest legal code in the
Philippine:> was the.Code.of'Kblantiaw. Thi~ code was said tobe a set
of ancient laws promulgated in 1433 by Datu &ndara Kalantiaw
(Spanil;h spelling, Calanliao) of Aldan, the third Muslim ruler of
Panay.
The code itself was contained in one oJ the c}:lapters of the f,a~
antiguas leyendas tit' /a isla de Negros (Ancient Legends of Negros
Island) writtenby Fr. fosc Maria Pavon,a Sparush secularpriestwho
became a parish priest of 'Himamaylan, Ncgros Occtdentalin1838·
1839. Jo$1! E. Mai'Co of Negros OccidePtal d~overed the alleged
Pavonmanuscriptsand presented it to Dr. jam~Robertson,Dire:tor
ofthe Philippine Libraryand M~um in1914. According to Marco's
confession, heobtained the two manuscript volumes from someone
who had stolen them from tht! H!mamaylan COilWnto during the
Revolution.
Direc.tor Robertson had the Pavon manuscripts published in
its English ltanslation in 1917. The Philippine Slud!e; Program of
the University of Chicago reprinted the translation in 1957.
Eventually, filipino hi~torians and textbook writers acknowledged
the auth~nlicily of the Pavon manuscripts without any doubt.
In tMunprecedented doctoralstudyofScott, he concluded that
the Pavon manuscripts were not genuine and that the Code of
Kalantia.w was a hoax. He presented his serious objections to this
fak<: "historical" code. They are as follows:
10

31. 1. There iBnacvide~ that Fr. Pavon, the aUegcd author of
the manuscript, wa6 ever in the Prulippines in 1838, or
.ea.risl:t P'riest of the town in 1839, the dates of the
!nM'u:;cript. Thedisrovcrer oftheaUeged manuscript. Jose
E. Mareo, was also involved in tt>c sale of other fake
historical document~. There is no histotical evidence for
the exisrence ofDatu Kalantiaw,ora code ofhis name other
than the documents presented by Jose Marco.
2. The conbmt:; of the manuscript arc of dubious value. For
example, the ;~uthor prays for the preservation of the King
ofSpain in 1838 and dedicate~ a book to him in 1839, but
Spainhad no king between 18:33 and 1874.
3. The author also states that the month of :-.Jovember was
called a bad month for it brought air laden with putrified
microbes ofevilfevers. It was only in the 1850s that Louis
Pasreur discovered the theory of infectious germs. The
word "microbe" itself was invented by Dr. Charles
EmmanuelSed.illot.Heproposed the term forthefin>t time
in a ledun:! before the Academy of Sciences in 1878.
ol. The Ka!antiaw Code contains many strange edicts that
contradict the character of the Filipino. For example, the
code prescribed deathpenalty for the crime of tresspassing
on the datu's house, but imposed only 11 year's slavery for
stealing his "''ife.
Eventually, Scott's doctoral dL<;.<;~r1atinn was publ.ish~d by the
USTPress (Un.itas, Vol. :41, 1968). Thefollowing year,Jtwa~ rei.~sued
with the title, Prthistoric Source Mnt~ls for 1/ze Study of Philippine
!:fistory (l)ST Pre~~, 1969).· The same book was published in the
second J:'e•lo;ed edition by ~ew Day Publisher.~ (Quezon City) i.n
1984. In ltu! lastchapter ofthebook, Lookingfor thePrP.hispnnic Filipino
issued in 1992 by New Day Publishers,·Scott wrote a chapter titled,
Ksllantiaw: The Code that Never Was.Scott's condusion:s hilve notbeen
cha!!enged by any hlstorim to date.
Another narrative that many Filipinos have learned is about
the legendary warrior princess named Urduja. She has been ;~dopted
as a symbol ofa woman ofdi~tinguishedcou ra~, an inspil'ation for
women in the country.
11

32. Unfortunately, this tale is another historical error that has
created false impressions and should be corrected. The story
reportedly came from ~uhammad Ibn Abdullah Ibn Batuta also
known as Ibn Batuta (1304-1371!), an Arab travcl~r from Morocco.
His bookRih/alt (Travels) includesde5criplions of lhc 'Bpantinecourt
of Constantinople (now Istanbul) and the Black Deatnof Baghdad
(1348).
Accordingto histTavdaccounts, whilesom~<w hert>in Soulheast
A~an waters, he reached the land of Tmvnlisi after a voyage of 71
days. and China was15daysaw<~ywith a favorable wind.lnTu1mlisi,
he mentioned a mysterious amazon named Princess Urduja who
WOUd only marry the man who could beat her in fistfights. She
presided overa courtso fascinating and majestic. Shegave Ibn f3atuta
gifts ofsilk, spices, sheep, buffaloes, and two elephant-loads of rice.
The legend of Princess Urduja is quiie amusing but hi~torian~
could not certify its authcntidty. Modem historians agr~ lhal
Princes:; Urduja was just an illusory ~reation of Ibn Batuta, a
contemporaryofMarco Polo(1254-1324), the Venetian tre~velec whose
accounts in the East, particularly China (the English translation of
the original title ofthebook w~s '/'he Drscripfion oftire World recorded
by Rustkhello, a rormmC(! writer from Pisa), drt>w lhc attention of a
great number of Europeans and stimulated interest m Asian trade.
Efforts to correct historical errors are still ongoing. Many
hi~torians even investigate for th~mselve~ the validity of sources
and data. Th~ concern of historians has been to collect and r~cord
facts about the past and to discover new £.1cts with utmost care and
truthfulness. The damage c,ntsed by deception is surely
immea:mrable but the blunder itself is a challenge th<lt every
individual should face. The determination Lo uncover the past
necessarily involves· the usf! of auxillary disciplines and literary
form-;.
12

33. Chapter Test No. 1
Name: _________________________
Date: _________
Cowse,Year,and Section:_______________
I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the correct answer.
Write your answers on the blanks provided : (15 pts.)
_____ 1. Based on his theory, actions and events in history
m.1y ~attributed to economic motives.
a. Alvin Scaff c. Karl Marx
b. Arnold Toynbee d. l'emand Braudcl
_ _ _ 2. Hegel's N~furwi~senchaftm, the antithesis refers to
this.
a. historical reality c. particula1 ideal
lie particular situation .~ world of spirit of
or matter thought
_____ 3. According to him, Philippine history is a story of
struggle.
a. · Renato Constantino c. Antonio de Morga
b. Sonia Zaide d. Robert Fox
____ 4. The item below is a secondary source.
a. diary ·c. juumal
b. fossil t.l. love Jetter
____ S. This is an example uf an artifact.
a. jaw bone
b. 0 puttery
c. soil
· d . jewelry
_ _ 6. He wrote the SuerS<~!' .te l.n5 /~Ia.~ Jo"ilipiuns.
a. Feodor Jagor c. Alfredo
F.vangeli~ta
b. . Antonio de Morga d. ArRcnio Manuel
13

34. 7. Asidefrom those in Madrid, mostofthecollections
ofAlfred ~arche in his 1881 major cxca,•ation are
found in this city.
a. Cehu c. New York
b. Manila ·d. P.ui.~
__ __ 8. TI1is is the p~ of the Michigan archaeological
expedition from 1922 to 1925.
a. exploration of numerous Pleistocene sites in
Northern Luzon
· b. collect Chinese ceramics exported to the
Philippines from China
c. gather artifacts from ancient graveyards
d. search for prehistoric m.aJ in Cagayan Valley
_ _ 9. The remains of the Tabon M.1n was discovered
under the leadership of this archacolngi~l.
a. Otley Beyer c. Antonio de Morga
b. Wilhelm Soheim II d: Robert Fox
__ 10. 1n the l~te 1960s, Karl Ilutterer and R= Tcnaz.;s
of this university recovered prehistoric artifact'~ in
the middle ofCebu City.
a. Atcneo de Manila
b. Silliman University
c. 53n Carlos University
d. University of Michigan
11. He wrol't! in 1907 that h>.·o of his written sources
for the Surnakwel Codt' were rotten and almost
unreadable.
a. Jose E. Marco c. Jose Maria Pavon
b. Pt'dro Monteclaro d. James Robertson
12. According tu Ibn Batuta, Princess Urduja ruled in
this kingdom which he travelled 13 days away
from China.
a. Tawali:;i c. Pangasinan
b. Thalamasin d. Borneo
14

35. n This is the modern day name of Champ.,.
a. java c. South Vietnam
b. IX!meo d. India
14. In this alleged manuscript, theauthorprays forthe
pre:sP.rvation oftheKing ofSpain in t838but 5pain
had no king betv11een 1833 to 1874.
a. Kaantiaw Code c. Maragtas Code
b. Sumakwel Cod<! d . Madya-as
_ __ 15. In the :vlaragtas story, the ten Borne<'n datus
bought this island from the A ti king named
M<Jrikudo.
a. Cebu c. Panay
b. 1'egros d. Sat:l'lir
n. E,<;..~ay: (10 pts. each)
1. How do events take plare in history as pointed o ut by
Geozg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Alvin Scaff?
2. What made William Henry Scott conclude that the
K<1lanli~w Code is a fake historical code?
15

36. The Natural Setting and its People
t. How the Barth Was in the Beginning
The Holy Bible tell! u5 that, "In thebeginning God created the
heaven• and the earth" (Genesi.<1: 1). 'The first partofthebook relates
Ihe 5tory ofcreation. God created man in His own image, male and
fem~le. Adam and Eve, the first man and woman, became the
progenitors of mankind.
Indigenous Filipinos, on the other hand, have a number of
snyth.s and legend:; about the creation of the earth, names of places
and theoriginofplants. Some myths expl~in the form,ltion ofi~land!'>
and islets 35 well as the creation of varied living creatures.
Some stories say that in. the begiMing, there was only the sea
and the sky. Based on a Visayan legend, there wa~ ,;]~;o a mythical
bird named Mai!IWIsearching for a place In rest bul cannot find one.
Then he pleaded the god of the sea, J<apta11 and the god uf the air,
Magauayart to help him.
Thegod~, asserting their might in anSvering the bird's request,
~howed their strength. The god of the s~a created tidal waves to
beatthe sky. Inresponse, the god of the ~ir threw the wavesback by
whirlwinds of rock and soil. Dryland was buill in the process.
The fight continued for thuusands uf years, until Manau/ grew
tired uf it. He <:ollected the rocks from the mountains and dropped
them on both gods. This ended the bailie. 1he ma$ses of ro<"ks
thrown by the mythical bird becamti' the islands of th~ Philippine
archipelago. ·
After getting exhausted, Mmtnul flew to a nearby grove of tall
bamboos to rest. v'lhen he alighted on the stalk, he heard a voice
coming from the bamboo, asking to be freed from within. The bird
pe-cked at the bambuo until it split apart. Out of the stalk came the
first man. S1·Kn/ac and the first woman Si-Kavav. Thev were advi~ed
by the earthquake a~ well as the fish of these~ and the birds of the
air to marry so thai they would multiply on earth. Tlu~y did, so
16

37. Si-l<m){ly boreherfirst-bornson Sibo.Sam,lr, their firstdaughtercame
next.
Numerol•Slegends explain howplac:esgot !hOc'irnames. rn many
mstanct:S, the name of a plan• is derived from .:1 bnd form of worJ
l.inked to the stury. for example Tagaytay from #taga Jtay;" Mindoro,
from the names of a couple Mina and Doro; and Manila, from til<!
word M.1}nilad (there are 11ilnd plants in the place).
Legend~ and myths at times provide a fandful counterpart to
actua I explan~tions or things and ~vents. The l ~ge nd or f!E>mardo
Carpio, called Hari 11g nrga Tagalog (King of the Tagalo~;s} pre.sen~
an imaginativt> explanation of how the country wa:; shaken by
earthquakes. According to the legend, Bernardo Carpio was rebuked
by lhc gods forhi• in.~nlcncc and leftendlessly ch.liru!din Montalban
Gorge in Rizal Province. l-Ie was cursed l'o keep two mountain
waiL! from colliding. Whenever he pausP.s to mgain strength, the
walls ofMontalbanGorgestart closing in.Carpiopushes them bad<
so that the mountains would not grind him into pi~ces. As a result,
the Rround ~mtmd him shudders.
The 11na!y!ical study of geology comm~nced with the
publication of James Hutton's Tht'Ory oflhr r:nrth (2 volumes, 1795).
!Iutton(ln&-1797),a British geologist, formula t~ the uniformilnnim
theory of geology which maintains that the Jaws of nilhm~ have
remained con.~tant. He further explained that the physical and
chemicalpmc:e~ses that haveacted throughoutgt>ologic timeare the
same processes seen today. laking the hydrologic cycle for instance,
condensation always precedes predpitation. Processes such as
volcanismanderosion that havecau_<;ed changes in thec<~rth'ssurfucc
had been operating in the same manner over a very long period of
time. lie rejected the theoryofcufastruphi>m, whi(h was thOc'ptE'vailing
helicf during his time. Catastrophism asserts that only major
catctstrophes could alter the formation of the earth.
Map~ or charts covering the enticeworld or specific regions are
contained in an atl~ Ptolt>my, an Alexandrian scholar produced
the first collection of maps in about A.D. 150. In Lht> 16"' c.entury.
Gerardus Mercator used the tenn atlas in the title ofhis colletiion of
maps. "!he term was derived from the custom of plating the Greek
mythological figure Atlas holding the t>arth on his ~h.oulders un the
title pages of map <:ollections. The first modem atlas titled, Tlle.ntrum
Orl:>is Terrarum (Theater of the Earth). was published in 1570 by
Abraham OrMiu~, a Dutch cartographer.
17

38. Ortelius noticed that the Amerkan continents seemed to h<we
been disjoined hom Europe and Africa. He realized that the coasts
of lh!! thr!!e continents could be linked together like a huge jigsaw
puzzle.
Alfred Wegener(1880.1930), a C'.ennan meteorologist,also noted
his inquiry regarding the three continents which, Ortelius had 300
years ago. He began tocombine som!! observations, which centered
on the view that the east coast of South America fits within the
contours uf the west <:oast of Africa. This suggests that the~e
continents may have been partofonehugelandmass. Hepostulated
that thesecontinent~ had simplydrifted apartover millions ofyear~.
Wegener's 1):ootyofcontinentaldrift wascontained in his book,
The Origin of Continent.< nud Oceans, published in 1915. He named
the supen::ontinent, Pa11gw-a, a Greek word meaning "all land."
Pangaea hadbegun"t>reakingup approximately200 million yearsago,
earlier into a northern porlion. which he named Laurasia and a
southernportion, termed Gondwanalandby the Au~trian geologist
Eduard Suess.
Wegener supported his theory with fos~il evidence. Plant and
animal fossils from thccoastlincsofSouth Amerka and Africa found
to match. Fos~ils in unlikely climates further defended his claim,
such as the discovery of tropical plant fossils in Antarctica and of
glacial deposit!! in Africa.
DuringWegener's lifetinw, his theory did not receive scientific
validationsince the technological means toprove ithad not yetbeen
develo~. During those days, mostpeoplebelieved that all earlh's
formations never move.
Arthur Holmes (1890·1965), a Briti~h geologist advocated
support for Wegener's theory. Jn l928, he proposed that the
convection currents within the earth's mantle driven by radioactive
heal might have caused the mechcmism fur continental drift.
In the 1950s, scientists began ocean()graphic rewarch, which
revealed thephenomenon known ~s5eafloorspreilding. In the 1960s,
the theory ofplate tectonics was established. The plates of the earth
move. The theory explains that the lithosphere (the outer layer of
the earth) move sideways above a. less rigid layer called the
~sthenosphere, whicl is und~r ~xtremc pressure. Eventually, the
theoryofcontinental driftgained far-reachingacceptance in the field
of science.
18

39. The surfacl'ofthe earth i.o;continuallychangingbecauseofforce::;
either from tht"intemal heat of the earth or the energy produ<'t'd by
the sun. The fir.;t one results in the motion of tectonic plates while
the latter, involves the movement of water from the earth's surface
to the atmosphere and then back to earth, which L'> also known as
hydrologk cycle which eventually results to the washing out·ofsoiL
2. Geological Foundation
J>rior to the appearance of modern man in the Philippine
archipelago, hi~tory has to depend on the war~ of ~cologists. The
geologists s~ek to understand how the earth evolved into what it is
todayand forecast possible geologic events. In Arthur Holmes' book
1'heAge ofthe Earth (1913}, he developed a geologic timescale, which
he continued to work on until 19:'i9. 'The d.11cs given for certam
geological formationsareWormedestirnalP.S,in termsofyears before
the presenI (BI').
Accon1in& lopresent estimates, the piM el earth is between 4.6
a11d 4.8 billion ye,.rs BP. The first dinosaurs were believed to have
appeared iround 225 million ycirs ago, during the Mesozoic Era.
At about65 millions years ago, the dinosaurs thatonceoc.:upled the
valleys, plains, and swampsbe-came extinCt. It isbdievetl that these
huge creatures perished with a huge mc-toorit~ that hit the eaTUI or
with shattering volcanic e ruptions.
The Philippine soil iscompos~d ofnumerous rocks, which came
from regions r.,r from the archipelago's present location. It w~
during the T"rliary period of the Cenozoic F.ra (54 million years- 2
million years BP) that the land structure of the Philippines was
defined. In the northem part, the P.hilippine archipelagowa.~ believed
to be adjoined to Formosa (now Taiwan) during the Eocene {53- 54
million years BP) and Oligocene epochs (37 - 38 million years BP).
However, the Formosanconnection wassevered during the Miocene
epoch (26 m illionyears BP). The comt>ined effect~ ofvolcanism and
other tectonic movements of the basement complex brought about
the disjunction.
Asconnections with other areaschang~d, the internal structure
of the archip"lago also underwent changes with.the flattening of
thecrustalsurfael!of theexistinghighergrounds during the Pliocene
epoch (7 ·-13 million years 'BP). The emergence of man onearth was
estimated al 5 million yt"ars BP.
19

40. Pleistoceneepoch (1.6millionyears to 10,000 years BP), the first
divisionof the Quaternaryperiod is theepoch prior ltJ the Holocene
epoch (10,000 year.~ BP tothe present). During the Pleistoceneepoch,
the earth underwent <1 series of altffnaling winn and c:old climates.
In Europe. scientists agrt.>e that there occurred four cold phas<'s
known geologically as Gtm.Z, Mindel Riss, and Wurm. In the United
States, these cold phi!St!S were known as Jerscriru~, KaMan glacial,
lllinoian-Iowan glacial, Md WL~consin glacial. lletween the cold
phases arc the three interglacial or warm periods. Each interglacial
period lasted for several thousand;; of years.
The J>lei'ltocene marked the beginning ofevolutionary processes
in both flora ami fdur.a. The freezing of the northern .:md southern
hemisphere~ cau~ed an extensive spread of sea icc in the area and
helped provide a suitable climate for ice-age animals like tilE'
mastodon md saber-toothed tiger. Jn Asia, the Mongolian area and
the Himalaya" were also topped with ice sh~eb. There was a
widespread distribution of glacier:; in the higher regions of the
Afric~n continent.
In sum~ reg.ion:; of Africa and Asia, particularly along the
southern coasts. th~re were no ice sheets. [nstead, the climatic
condition was ch~r~cterized by extensive and continuous rain. This
phenomenon i.~ known as thejluvinl conditio". Such condition gave
rise to the gr(lwth of rainforests and marshes, which favored the
survival of large animals,
Based on rerentstudic~. the earth has undergone twenty cycles
ofglaciation overthepast two million years. During thl:.'Pleistoc~ne,
the gla<iers accumulated a big quantity of water in the form of ice,
causing water levels in the world's oel!ans to drop. Tho:? t>arth's
climate, which began warming some 18,000 years ,,go, cau5ed the
oceans to regain their present lcvd5. The movements of Lite water
resulting from vast glaciatioM and degl.1ciations in the tempera~
region cau!>Cd convergence, as well as the separation o ( landmass~.
Ouring the glad;~l periods, ocean levels were much lower
thereupon exposing the Sttnda Shelf and the Sahul Shelf. These are
extensions of contin~nt~ otherv.-i:re known as continental ~helves .
In Asia, the Sund~ Shelf, whic.h is an exte11sion of the coastal
shelf ofSoutheast AsJa, included th~Malay Peninsul~,S1unatra, J<~va,
and Borneo to 1-'alawan. From &lmeo, th!! Philippines was linked
through a naLTOw proj~ction of island now occupied by Balabac.
20

41. Pal~wan and Calamian~. ThecontinentalshelfknownasSahul Shelf
isan e>-l't'<~sion ofthe coastal shelfofAustralia.It cov~red the islands
of New Guinea and the Aru lslanrls of lndont>Sia.
When the Sunda and Sahul Shelves were exposeJ, tht> land
bridges were believed to have connected most of Indonesia, New
Guinea and Atstralia. Dark-skinned people, ances tors to the
Ausl ra loid.~. tTavelcd across the bridges to :-Jew Guinea and other
islands of Mel;mesia. '!he Mongoloid p10ple thtm populil t~d New
Guinea and gradually journeyed to the southeast by sailing canoes.
Several changes in the land formation in tt>e archipelago took
place toward the end of the Plei~tocPnc due to a number of factors
likevolcruuceruptions,erosion, faulting, and foldinR ofthegeological
base of thP. ifiland~.
Tht> J>lcistoccnc lasted for a long perioc.l of ti•ne. Al the height
of th~ interglacial period, a great riversystemflow~xl from the int~rior
ot Asia n1<1inland and Australin poured into the outlying area~ . The
riverine connections brought about toe drifting of species of fish.
Till$ explains the strikingsimilarities offish fatm~ in EasiPrn Sumatra
with tho:;e in Western Bomcu and species found in the Philippines.
Similarly. then~ is a close (,lllnal and floral relationship between
Eastern 1.fuldanao and North Borneo.
The existence of the shlll<1W China Sea between the Asiao
m..1inland ,1nd the Philippines, as well as the presence of a foredeep
at the P.astem margin of the col.ntry, indicates that t h~ archipelago
was once the edge of the Asi~n continentlll platform. These ~asons
further surport the land b rid ~e~ theory that most scientist~ acc12pt.
Some geologists like lJr. 13.lilcy'Willis questiont.>d the villidJty
of the land bridges theory ~nd mentioned that the Philippinl'S is of
'olcanic origin. Based on the volcanic theor)~ the emergence of the
isl;~nds "'~~ a result of the eruptions of sea .,.·ukMOe-5 in rP.mo tP.
c~l(><:hs.
3· The Archipelago's Name
During the pre-Spanish era. early Chinese t•·ad<!rs and
geogrclpher~ already knew the Philippines. Sung Dyna~ty sources
in 982 A.D. rcierr~d the islands BS Ma yi. Qal1 )u-kua. cl Chine5e
:r~dc oificial, gave a detailoo ac.'O~~>t of his tr«vel to various parts
•)l iht> i~land~ in 1225. whicli he called Mu-i.
~1

42. In 1521, Ferdinand Magellan named the islands, 1~/n,; d( S1111
l.il:m·q(Archipelago ofSt. Lazan•s) when he firstset foot onour native
soil. Ma.ny other n.1mcs have bet>n given to the archipelago.
lhe name Philippines came from the word Filipinns giv£'n by
the 5panish na•igator Ruy Lopez de Vi!Jalobo~ in 1543 in hcmor of
Prince Philip of Asturias, who became King Philip II of 5pain,
~uccessor to King Charlc5 I. '!heword F.-Jipina wa~ at first given by
Villalobos'~ mE>n to refer to l.A!yte and Samar. Later, it was given to
the whc>le ar:chipt:!lago.
In 1751, Fr. ]udn J. Delgado, a Jesuit historian called Manila,
Pc'f'lrl of lirc· Oriml since it became a rich outlet of Asian trade even
prior to the comingof th~ Spaniards in the archipt'lCigo.Dr. Jose lllial,
the country's foremost hero, gave the name p,.,,, oftlrt·Orimt Sr•rs to
his nal'iveland on the eve of his execution in 1896.
The name Filipinn~ first appeared in a rare map published in
Venice in 1554by Giovanni BatHst.1 Ramu.r,io, an Italian geographer.
Th~ Spanish Filil'inas or Ft•lipi>r.1~ was later chiiih":!U to Philippine
Islands (P.I.) during the Amerlc.an colonial era. It was n.'llamcd
Republic of the Philippines (R.P.) after the recognition of its
independence in 1946.
There were some Filipin~ who proposed new names for the
Philippines :;ince the name of our country was g•ven by the
coloni.zens. Artemio Ricarte, a Katipunan general, wanted it to be
called the Rizalillt' R~pu/J/ic, after Jose Rizal. former President
Ferdinand Marcos propoeed the name Mahnrlikn (also tht> name of
his guC!'rilla group in World War II), alter hi~ dream of making this
nation (rt'at again.
4· Geography and Resources
The Philippines, found in.the Western Pacific Ocean, has an
asti'Onomicallocation of 4° 23'·21"25' N. l.atitudt:! and l16°·127"E.
Longin•de. lt is situated in the SOLL!beastem portion of Asia. Taiwan
bounds the country on the north, on the west by South China St:!a
and Vietnam, on th~ east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the
Celebes Se~ and Indonesia and, on the southwt>:>t by :vfalaysia and
Singapore. ~<:atse of its centra l location in tht! Far East, the
Philippines has been dubbed as the "Crossroads o/ the Pacific".
22

43. The country is an archipelago uf7,107 islands and islets. Jt has
a total land area of 300,000 square kilom.,tt-rs. Manila is the capital
and largest city of the country. It is also the chief port and main
commercial cente( of the islands.
Luzon, th~ biggest of the three major geographical groups has
an area oLJ41,395 square kilometj!rs. Visayas has an area of..56,606
square kilometers; and Mindartao, with an ~a o~_101,999 :;quare
kilometers. The northenuno.:~t point of the country is Y' Ami Isle,
which is 78 miles from Taiwan. The southernmost point is Sauag
Isle, only 34miles easl of Borneo.
The Philippines has the longest irreb'lllarcoastline in theworld.
36.290 kilometer.;inlength. This is longer than t,hecoastline ofGreat
Britain and twice the coastline of the United States. The cotu>try has
61 natural harbors(with20 lilndlocked straits). Manila Bay, th~ finest
naturaIharbmin the Far East. has on area ofl,970 square kilumet~rs.
Palawan, which forms the country's western boundary, has a
t.ot<1of1,768 i~Jands and islets. Ithasmarvelous subterranean cav~~.
W1explored divesites,unpolluted beaches..,nd dense tropical jW1gles.
It is also a sanchtary to a variety of faW1a and flora.
The cotntry h"s 16 regions whkh include the nocos Regiol,
Cogayan Region, Central Luzon. Southern Tagalog, Bicol Region.
Western Vis~yas, Central Visayas, Eastern Visaya~, Western
Mindanao, ~orthem Mindanao, Southern Mindanao, Central
Mindanao, Caraga Administrative Region, Autonomous Region in
Muslim Mindllnclo (ARMM). Cordillera Administrative Region
(CAR), and Metropolitim Manila. These I'l!giOns are comprised of
provinces, which are ~-ubdividcd into districts. The districts consist
of municipalities with a number ofbarangays.
'!he L~lands in the Philippines are said to b" of volcanic origin;
thus, it has grand moW1tain ranges and sununits of submerged
mountiin mas.~. It has fertile valleys and plains as well asexten~ivc
river systems. Forests onmountainslope.~, wheremostof the diverse
plants and animals are found, provide m"terials for food, medicin~
and building shelter and natural habitats for wildlife.
Some mountain.~ have be~n regarded as sites for spiritual
r~generation. In the Tagalog region, some people find Mounts
Makilirlg and Banahaw as mystic mountains tor reflection and
recreation. According lo legend, Mount :>.fakiling m Laguna is the
abode ofa godd~ named Marlang Makili.ng whoprotects the forest
23

44. thatcovers the mountiin. MountBanahaw along theQuezonborder
isalsoconsidered apowerfulenergy sourceforpilgrims, spiritualists,
and cults h,wing a blend of both indigenou.~ and Catholic beliefs
and rituals.
Three major mountain ranges are ~ituated in lorthem l.uT.On:
the Sierra MadrP. Range, tllP. Cordillera Range, and the Caraballo
Range. The Sierra Madre, which is the largest and l<.>nge:;t range in
thecountry, faces the Pacific Ocean on the eastemcoast of Luzon. It
begins near Aparri and proceeds further through !sabela, Cagayan,
and Aurora provinces. The southern part of Sicrr,1 Madre include!'l
Aurora, Quezon, l3ulacan, Rizal, and Laguna provinc~s.
The Cordillera Mountains in the western p.1rt of Korthem
l.u7.0n are parallel to the Sierra Madre Range. The Cagayan Valley
occupies the region between these two mountain ranges. The
Conhllera extends from !locos Norte down to the 8enguet and l.a
Union areil. In the Cordillera Range, Mount Pulag, is the second
highest peal< in the country.
The mostproductivegold and copper mines in thecountry are
located within the CordiUcra region. Ro<~dsalong themountainrange
areknown for their zig1.ag curve!'.. The famous BanaucRice Tcrr.1ces,
looking like stairways to heilven, i~ in the Cordilleras. lhcrc arc
places when.• the ric<! fields reach from c~n altitude of 1,500 ieet to
4,500 feet. Thl! lf~1gaos haH· built these terrac~s ont of the mountain
slopes using thl? barest of toob over htmdreds of years. Their
devotionfor rice has compelled them to carve these majestic terraces
on which to plant. ln regions inhabited by,,pure lfugao population.
the walls of the terraccs arc of rotU1d hard river stones.
TI1edtyofBaguio amidst themmmtainow;regionofCordillera
i~ one of the most popular vacation dc.,linations in the country.
Owing to tht> somic attractions as well as cool temperature oi the
place, Bagttio has become the ''summer c"p•tal" of the country.
The Caral.Milo R11nge, near NlJPva Ecija and Nueva Vi:r.<:aya,
crosscuts the Si~rra Madre at its middle section and the southern
end of the Cordilleras. To the south ofCaraballo i~ the Central Plain
in Luzon.
On thesouthwestern coast ufLw:on is tht! Zambal~ Mountain
Range. Itextends from the shores of Western Pangasinan to parts of
Du!acan and 6ataan. Luzon has a motmtai.nous extension to the
southe,1st called Bicol Pcninstla.
24

45. In the Visayas, the mostprominent mountain ranges are found
a(ross major islands. The islands in the Visaya~: have mountainous
terrains except Samar and Bohol.
In Mindanao, therearc four major mCIUtainranges: theDiwata
Range, the Tago·Apo Range, the Kalatungan-Kitanglad Range, and
the Daguma Range. The Diwata Rangehorders the Pacific coastand
west of it lie,:; the valley ofAgusan. Tago-Apo Range fonns a parallel
ridge to Diwala Range. Located in the area are the Balatukan
Mountains, the volcanic peaks ofCamiguin, Kinabalin, Kumakata,
and the :l.ioWlt Apo in Davao del Sur, which ill also the highest
mountain in the country (2,954 meters high).
The Kalatungan·Kitanglad MoWltain Range, which includ~
Mounts Butig, Kidongin. and Ragang is situated in the Lanao
provinces. The Daguma Range exrends near Sarangani Bay in the
south. Volcanoes at the boundaries of Dagurna Range are Mount
Blik, south of Cotabatu City and Mount Parker, west of General
Santos C:ily.
Thecountryhas over50volcanoes.The mostactive among them
are lraya in Batane~:, Pinatubo in Zambales, Taal in Batangas,
Banahaw in Ql.lezon, Mayon in Albay, Bulu.san In Sorsogon, Kanlaon
in Ncgros, Ilibok·Hil.ook in Carniguin, Makaturing in Lanao, and
Apo in Oav~o del Sur.
Mt. Pinatubo which has been donnant for 611 years ~tarted to
emit ilnnes on April 2, 1991 after a hydrothermal explosion at the
volcano's crater tuok p la~. The most destructive series of eruptions
were on June 12·15, 1991. Its ashfalls reached as fa r as MetTo Manila,
Mindoro, Palawan, and Cambodia to the east, worsening damage
to the 07.0ne IaycL
Sevt!ral places in the provinct!s of Zambales, Tarlac, and
Pampanga, including Clark.iir Base inAngeles Cllywere filled with
pyroclas tic flows and lahar (an Jndon~sian term for volcanic
mudflow). Devastation to public and private propertieswas greatly
unra,·orahle, placing these areas llldcr a state of calamity.
The lahar deposits along Mt. Pinatubo still cascade~ duwn the
lowlands after heavy rains. The~ vokanic mudflows are expect~!
to last for years. They continue to defy the billion-peso dike built to
contain l.1har flows.
Taal Volcano. a regular tourist drawer, is 11 volcano within a
volcano. It L~ rising from a lake,which is the crater ofa larger volcano,
25

46. now extinct. Since 1572, Taal Volcano had 33 recorded eruptions
with violent ont'S that occulT('(! in 1749, 1754-, 1911, and 1965.
Mount Mayon, world famous for its near-perfect conical shape,
had its first recorded crupllon in 1616. It had cntplcd at lea.<>t 45
limes from then on. In 1814. it erupted disastrously. de~troying five
town.~ ~urrounding its base. During theheight oi thE' volcano's fury,
1,200 people who took refuge inside the church of the town of
Cagsawa (now Daraga} were killed. lhe ruins of the church tower
solely remilin above ground after the tragedy.
Kanlaon Volcano had cntpled six time~ in 1985 and thrice in
1986. In1989, it had a minor eruption. Fortunately, this did not cause
any de'ltruction.
There arc !lOme '·oleanoes whose hot rocks beneath arc being
pent-tratt>d by groundwClter. When the heated underground water
tt.>~(he~ tht.> surface, hot .springs are formed. Thc'.~P. hot springs are
used as baths in the houses and resort~ around Mt. :'vfakiling and
~1t. Bulusan.
Topographic elevations les:'> thnn 600 meters in altitude are
considered hills. The mo~t popul,u of these in the country arc the
Chocolate Hill<;, with more than 1,000 uf them in Bohol. During Ihe
dry months of February tu1til May. these dollC-!.haped limestone
hills tum chocolate-brown as the gr= wither. !nus the name was
~iv~n to it.
Chocolate Hills is one of the geologicCll monum.mts of the
country. The other four national geological monuments are Taal
Volcano in Batangas, MontCJibl!ln Caves in Rizal Province,Sand Dunes
in !loco~ Norte, and Hundred Islands in Pangasinan.
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(D ~R}, Philippine Touri~m Authority (PTA), and the Nationa I
Comm[llre on Geological Sciences (NCGS) issued the declaration
n( national geological monuments to highlight the protection of
geological structures and feahtrcs with high scientific or llt.'sthetic/
environmental value. Thesegcol(l~ical monumentswould serve not
only as travel destinations in lhP.countrybut also as laboratories for
geologic~! research.
Large ril.'ers traverse the principal islands of the country. The
Cag.1yan River, with a length of 513 kilometer:;, is the longest river
in the country. It t1ows irom the Caraballo Mountainsnt>ar the Nueva
26

47. Vizcaya-Nucva Ecija provincial boundary and proct:eds down into
the Babuyan Channel in Northern Luzon. Other important river" in
the COUJitry include Chico, Abra, Pampanga, Bicol, Pulangi, and
Agusan.
Between Samar and Le yt~ is the San juanico Stra it, the
nanuwcststrail in theworld. Laguna de Bay is the largest freshwater
lake in Southeast Asia. The deepest among tht.- l~kcs of T...t;una i~
Lake Calibato, whic.h is 176 ~ters deep. This is brought about by
low silt inflow from its small watcu.hed area.
In the middle of the tropkal blue and emerald green waters of
the Sulu Sea and Palawan lies the Tubbat<Jha RP.ef, just one of the
sandbars and reds known for its rich beautifuldivesitesand marine
rewun:es. St>~birds, turtle~. giant clams, and other marine animals
have been settling in the area. The reef covers an area of 12 miles
within the island rnW1icipality of Cagayancillo in Palawan. In
August, 1987, the reefwas declared a national rn:uine park. It gained
gre,1ter di~tinction and international recognition when the UNESCO
naml'd TubbMaha a World lleritage Site.
Tht: largest plain in the archipelago is the Comtral Piain in_Luzon,
known as the "Rice Gr~nary of the Philippines." The ~urroundin!_!
greenery yields vegetables, tendriL~, sprouts, .flowers, and fruits.
Amongme f.1mous Philippine fruitsacre lan7.0ncs, sweetmango,and
the durian.
There are about 10,000species uf flowering plants and ferns in
the country. Among the flowers in the islands are the sampii)?Uita,
gardenia, dama de noche, wilter lilies, orchids and il lot more. Of
the 1,000 varieti..s of on:hids that bloom in the count')~ the waling-
walillg (Vm•dQ samleriana) is regardP.d as thc "Queen of Philippine
Orchids."
Famous of the Philippine woods is narra, proclaimed as the
country's national tree in accordance with an ~xecuhve proclamation
of Governor General .Frank Mwphy dated February 1, 1934.
Rc£errC<i to as the forests of the sea, mangrove swamp for~t;
grow in saltwater or brackish water. The mangroves are among the
significant ecosystems that characterize the coastal areas of the
archipelago. They arc con.;idered minor forest type, compared to
mixed lowland tropical rainfore~t ecosystem.
Economically, the mangroves are beneficial, especially to the
coastal dwellers. They provide poles for ~helter, wood for cooking,
27

48. chorcoal ~s domestic l'ner~;;y source and as a source of Income, nipa
sap fo r tuba and vinegar, nipa shingles for roofing, ~nd ground for
Bquaculture. Mang10ve-dcpcndent fishery products include
~hellfish, shrimps. and llk'ltlgrove crabs. These mangroves likewisc
help prevent erosion of riverbanks
The country abounds in animal life. Of the 201 ~pedes of
mammals in thE' colntry, 179 are terrestrial and 22 are m~rine. The
l'hillpplne carabao, a swamp type of domesticated water buffalc
has long b~en an important work animal. Other animals include
several species of deer, wild and clomesticat,;d pigs, cattle, rodents,
reptiles, birds, <~nd mollusks. Some unique animals in the world are
also found in the Philippines: the tamaraw or /3ubalus miudorrn.~is of
Mindoro, whkh looks hke a dwarf carabao; the tarsier of Bohol, the
smallest monkey in the v.<orld; and the Calamian deer or Ceruu$
calnminnm.>i> (pilanrluk) of Pal~wan, the world's smalh!stdeer.
Tht"n! are about 25,000 species of insects in the islands. The
largl:!st insect in the CotUtry i~ the giant moth (Ait<~CII5 at/115}, with a
wingsp.m ofone foot. The largest llnd >mallest bats in the world are
found in thecomttry. Ihl' lesser /l<ltheaded batsor the Jesser bamboo
ba~ weigh around 2 grams. The golden-crowned flying fox weighs
about 1.5 kilograms. It has a wingspan of 1.7 metel's. These two
species of bats are found in Olonga.po City, :t.ambales at the Subic
Bay Forest Re~rve (SBFR).
. The world's second largest after the Harpy e.1gle found in the
Amazon forests is the Philippine eagle (Pithecopagn jefferyi), found
in the jungles of Luzon and .'vlindanao.lt has earned the titleof "King
of Philippine Birds". It measurPS five ;md a half feet in height and a
wing SJ>M of!even feeL It was previou~ly called the monkey-eating
eagle. In th!' 1970s,.its nam<.> was changed since it was found out
that it only ale monkeys occasionally. lis main food consists offlying
lemurs, li:la.rds,and snakes.In1996. th., Philippine eagle wasoffiCially
named the national bird of the country by virtue of a presidential
proclamation.
Other interesting birds in the country are the ki•ltlw, which the
Spanish colonizers dubbed a~ "clock of th., mountains", the klltalt1
(Philippine Cockatoo), which mumbles and croons like a man, ,md
the tin)• Philippin~ iakonet, only six and a half ccntimctcr5long.
Also f01md in the Philippines i~ the world's rarest shell, called
Glory of the Sea (Cotw11,;gloricmmris) and the Trid~cr1a giiln.(.which is

49. the world's large~t shell and has a length of one meter and weighs
600 pounds. The sm~llest shell in the world, the- Pi~idum, i.'< also
found in our (Ount:ry. It i.~ less than lme millimeter in length.
ln 1995, R.M. de Ia Paz and E.D. Gomez recordt>ll a totitl of
2,140 species of J>hiJippinc fishes. Among the commercially known
fish found in numerou~ 111lhing grounds arC' the l%mgus (milkfish),
dalas (mudfJSh), dilis (anchovy), kmzdrrl•· (catfish), laprrlaprr (scabass),
galwzggong (romd scad), lwzguirrgi (rnaclcerel), llzmlwz (Indian
,;ardincs), and barites (tuna).
Some of the endemic frcshwatcr species are con~idered
endingered. TI1ese indude the Han'll.'{ll/;1 towilis, locally known as
t.nvi/zs; Mt"Siichtlzys luwnm,i;, or;ii111YIIf~1H; and pmrr1akll PY:~miU'tl, the
pygmygoby.
1;2wi/is, a freshwater species oisardines, are found in Lake Taal.
&t~ng<~s. Si1zm·apun, thesmallPst conunercial fish, can only be found
in Lak~ Buhi and L.1k.e Bato, Camarines Sur. lt m~a~ures bctwe~n 1
and 1.4 centimeters. The d warf·pygmy goby or !orally known a»
ta/Jin~. lhc world's smallest v~rtebrate which ranges from 7.5 to 11
miJlimet~rs, is said to be dwelling in the 1'avotas and Malabon
Rivers. It is strongly believP.d that the ttlbios is already extinct due to
wMer pollution.
The world's largest fish is al~o found in the- country. This i~ the
whale ~ hark, which is 50 feet or more in length. It was iirst sight<>d
off th~ coast of Marivele~, Munila Ba~: in 1816 by Filipino fishe rmen,
who called 1t ~~>tiug /Julik (striped .~hark).
The Philippine archipel;,go hl!s rich d~>posits oi gold, copper,
inm, lead, manganese,nickel, chromite, sil,•er and other metal<;. Non·
metallic mineral! include coal, salt. a:;phalt, asbestos, clay, marble
and hme$!One.
Gold mining is an ilndent industry in the country. Before the
coming of theSpanish conqueron;, the Filipinm: werealrcady:mining
gold in t'aracale, Carnarincs Norte. in the mmmtains of NorthE'rn
I.17.0n a•1d the 1slands of :VIasbate and Mindanao.
Mount Diwalwallocated at thenorlhPmend ofDavaodellorte
ha.!; been the site of gold rush since 1963. ., he Bureau of )..1ines
officially attributes the d iscovery of gold in the vicinity to the
members of the Mandaya tribe. Goldnuggetswt>Te io,md. and those
who h,wc entered and eng<~g~d in small-scale mininS were able to
g~ in ,, lnt irom this busine!Q venture.
29

50. Sin(!:.' pre-colonial time.s, the Igorols have been Jnining copper
in the mountains of Northern Luzon. 1;mkayan, the olde.st and
largestcopperminein thecotmtrystill exists. Other copperdeposit:;
are found in the island~ of ::-cgro.~ and Rapu-R.1pu {p.1rt of All:lay}
and the province of ZambaiE's. Iron deposils MP. found in Larap,
Camarin~;.>~ Nortt>; San Migut!l, Buldcan; Marinduque; and Samilr.
Thegreatest iron-bearingareain the rountry is Smigao. The world's
l<~rgcst deposit of nickel has been discovered in Nonoc Isle, off the
coast of Northern Mindanao. Va~t marble deposits arc found in
Mindoro, Romblon, Palawan, Cebu. and Flicol. Adequ~te deposits
of coal are bt>ing tappl>d in Ct>bu, Sorsogon, Masl>atc, <md Silmguey
Peninsula.
5· Country's Climate
The Philippines has a tropical dimatl' with a nwan anntal
rempcrature ofabout27"C (about80"F). Mountain slopes and peaks
found in the archipelago are cooiE't: The country has two $easons,
dry and w~;.>t. In most of the islands. rainy season occurs frum May
to November. During this period. the wind blow:. from the
soothwest. Often, thecountry<.'xpcricnccs typhoonsfrom themonths
of June to October. "Jhe dry season occur.~ from Uec~mbcr lo April,
when the wind blows from" the northeast.
6. The Filipino People
Tile Philippinesoci~ty isa hannomousrruxture ofdiversity and
homogenl:.'ity: Despite of diverse ethnic and c:ultural backgrounds,
forces of assimilation have constantly worked to overcome the
differences.
Within the blood veins of the .hlipinos are a blend of its
forefathers from Malay, Chi•)~Se, Negrito, Jndi;~n, Europt'an and
American lineage. The intermarriage of a Filipino and <1 foreigner
did happt!n, owing to the strategic location of the country to
Southeast Asian neighbors and the colonial rule of Spain and
America. The int~rmingling of people resulting to adaptation to
dilferent <"ulture.;; made tht> muntry ~ melting J'OI of peoplt> and
Clllture.
Since the 19'" century, Fihpinos h,ove been rderred to as the
·Christiani:£ed Malays whoconstitute thebulkofthepopulation. They
30

51. are thedescendantsofthose whow~re colonizedby Western settlers.
Nwncrically greater in nwnber are the Visayais (primarily in the
central pMlion of the archipelago) and the Tagalogs.
The Cebuanos, Ilonggos, ancl Waray-Waray comprise a big
number among the Vi~ayans. In the Visaya~, the llonggos live in
Western Negros, in Southern Mindoro and in Panay Island while
the Ccbuanos predominate in Cebu, W~tern Leyte, Buhol, Eastern
1'egros, and in ~omc coast..'! areas of Mindanao. The Waray-Watays
are in the provinces of Samar and Eastern Leyte.
Mo&t of th" Tagalogs live in Manila, in Central Luzon, and
Southern Luzon. People coming from certain provinces in the
Tagalog region like Batangas, Bulacan,<1nd Qut.>zonhaveintonations
oi their own.
The Ilocanos are considered the third biggest group. They live
particularlyin!locos1'orte,llows Sur, anci La UnionbutITh"'ny havc
rrtigratcd locally and abroad.
Other members of the populace include the Pangasine~$,
Pampangueiius, Zamhals, lbilnags{Cagayanos), and Bicolanos. The
Pangasinenses live in the Lingayen Gulf region of Pangasinan,
including the province o£ Panga~inan. :Many of them have already
migratP.d in other provinces of Central Luzon. The Pampangueiios
or Kapampanganslivc inCentral Luzon,particularly in tht? province
oi P<~mpanga.
The non-Malaygroltp~ indude people ofSpanish and Chinese
desr.ent. 'lhday, the country'has a growint; number of t'ilipino-
Chinese who areengaged invarious conunercialadivities. They are
part of the economically and politic~lly important minority.
1atur"' and ancestral beliefs have helped ~hapc the lifestyle of
the tribal communities. The indigenous groups in various parts of
the archipelago havl' kept their own cultural tradition distinct
through the generations. Induuet! here are th~ vadous mountain
people ofCordillera, whichcofll;ist<Jfthe b.ne)9i ofApayao; Kalingas.
of Kali11ga; lfugaos, lgorots, lbalois, Kankanays, and Bontoks of
Benguet and Mountain Province. The culture of the people in this
region is quite different from that of the lowland communities.
Although a numbr..'r of the populace arc Christians, still many of
them arc p.1gans.
31

52. The I<alingas tattoo their bodiC!l a!i a sign ofbravery. For them,
prestige can be achievt>d through nrillorical ability. The lsnegs, like
the Kalingas, tattoo their bodio:s as a status symbol.
The lfugaos ha·e a high reg~rd for th" family's honor and
dignity. They are forhidden to induce hostility. cause bloodshed or
practice adultt>ry. HnRabi, a chairsculpted from a large mass of wood,
plays an important part in the livf's of the lfugaos. This indicates
the high position of the owno:r in tht' community.
The Igorots live on rootcrops grown in their yard and on wild
pigs. deer, and fowl in the fore~t. The lgorots of lht> pR~t· engage in
headhunting to avenge the death of a lcin or tnbesman. This custom
is least pra~ticed nowada~.
The Bontoks ba~ically do hunting and agriculture for a living.
They perform rituals like bngb<lto to ensure a bountiful harvest and
the ulog, where the unmarried womnn stays in a place called ulo8 to
I'C(C!vc male visitors and suitors.
The lbalois and the Kankanays of Benguet and Southern
MountainProvince are con..,idered themostsophisticated mountain
region people bccause they are th"' most exposed to low!~nd life.
Although the people ofCordillo:ra dweU in the highlmds, they
no longer live in i5olation. The influences of modern civilization
have ushered in new changes in their communities thro t,gh the year~;.
Modem types of buildings nrc also found elsewhere.i.n tht rt>gion.
The young generations that have g'onc to schools in the Chr~ti~n
lowlands have almost adopted the way of life of the lowland
communities.
Other indigenous group,c; are the Gaddangs of Isabela, the
Negrito.Qor Aetas of Zambalcs Jnd the hin!erlar)d.Q; the :'vlangya.ns
of Mindoro; the Tagbanuas, Bill~k. Tau't Bato, Moll>of,s and Jama-
Mapuns of PCllawan; Mam.1nwa (a Nl>grito group) or Surigao del
Norte; the Kalibugilns, Subanuns, and Samal5 of Zamboanga del
Sur; the Manobos, limrays, Iranuns, ~nd T bolis of Maguindanao,
Cotabato, and Sultan Kuct<>ral; Mandayas of Davao Oriental;
Bagobm;.md B'!aansof Davao del Sur; Yakan~ ofBasil.m; theTausugs
oftht>SuluArchipelago, the B<1djaos of theSuluSca, and the Muslim
groups of 1indamo.
Leader.< of tribal comrnunit!es arc chosen for their skills and
their ability to evoke suppor1 irom the communal group. They
32

53. believe in theexi.~tcnccof~vera! uns~en beingsbesiowmg blessings
whenhonored and inflicting pain when displeased.
Theindigf"nous peoplehaveildapted tovariousecologicalzones
ranging from coastal to rugged mountain highlands. They prefer
permanent settlements, l!xcept for Aetas who are highly nomadic.
Badjaos live in houseboats, while others live in pile dwellings.
Tht! Aetas have already established their intimate relationship
with the woodlands as forest foragers and hunters. On the other
hand, migration by Visayan settlers in Mindanao during the
Americ.'Ul period cvmtually altered thf" population profile in the
region. Increased immigration from the north drove more cultural
communities in the hinterlands. Jlocanos, Tagalog:;, and Vi.sayans
settled in som" provinct!s of Mindanao like Davao Oriental and
Davao del Sur.
ln rt!spu~t> to the call of pre5erving indigenous culture in the
<:ountry, some ethnic tribes specifically the Ifugaos initiated moves
adapting ancient practices with Christian religion, which ~holars
refer toilS incullumtion.
High literacy in thecountry may be attributed to Filipinos' love
for eduolion. Viewed as d key to progress, educ~tion is believed to
improve one's means of livelihood and stah1s. Filipino (formerly
spell~·d Pilipino) is the national language oi the people although a
gcod number of them are conversant in English. The English
language is· commonly used for governmental, commercial, and
instructional purpose~.
Ineveryday communic.ltion, the Filipinos combine Englishand
.l'ilipino resulling toa lingocalledTagli5h (fromTagalog and English).
For instllnce. one could hear one say, "Happy aka for ynu. Sar1a you
wo11't forg~t us" (I'm happy for you. Hope you won't forget us) or
"Ok:ey na ang la.~at, ll11mk yvu .>a iyo!" (Everything'~ okay, thanks to
you!)
Age is highly valued in Philippine culture. The word po, or its
variation ho is employed in conversation to show respect. The do~e
approximation of its English translation is Sir or Madam. Adult
male and female who arc unfamiliar to the speaker arc greeted as
nr,lma and aft.
Siblings in the family arc addresSE-d according to their position
within the f11mily hierarchy likekuya or m.li!OI!g for theoldest hrother

54. and ate or mmumg for the oldest sister; diko and ditst' for the second
brother .md $isti.'r; and sangko and sause, for the third oldest brother
and sistec.
Traditionally, Fil.ipin~ have dose family ties. Apart from their
blood relatives, Christian Filipinoe; adopt new kins (iC11mpadre and
kumare) through having sponsors (nino•zg and nirumg) during
baptisms and weddings. They also extend help in the :;pirit of
bayanihan (<:ooperiltion).
Filipinos "''~ known for their hospitality. Tiley receive their
visitors with warmth and friendship. They arealso thankful to those~
who havebeengood to them, manifesting theFilipino Villuc ofutang
na Joob or one's debt of gratitude to those who have contributed to
their success.
For centuries, the Filipinos kt>pt faith in the Almighty God.
Throughout the goodandbad time~, they can easilyassimilate, bend
but never break like the strength ot the narra and the resilience of
the bamboo.
7. Theories on the Origin ofFilipinos
Long before the Spanish colonizers came into the Philippines,
peoplewith distinct cultures had already inhabited the islands. The
migr11tion thtory of H. Otley l:leyer, regarding the peopling of the
archipelago became the m~t widely known version in Philippine
prehistory.Accordingto Dr. Bo!yer, theancestorsofth~ rilipino~came
in wrWt'S ofmigratio11.
First to reach the archipdago was the caveman "Dawn Man"
type, who was similar to theJava ~ian and otherAsian Homo sapit'M
of~,§o,ooo year.; <lgo. Dr. Beyer called the first Filipino the "Dawn
Man", for he emerged on the i!llands at th~ dawn of time.
Next to settle in the islands were the aboriginal pygmy group
or the N"egritos. They w.cre said to have reached the islands before
the land bridges from Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Australia
disappeared. They camebetween 25,000, and 30)l00ycars ago. They
were described to have black skin, darky kinky hair, ro,md black
eyes, flat noses and with a usual height of 5 ieet.
Third to arrive were the seafaring and tool-using Indonesian
group who came about 5,000 to 6,000 ye<!rs ago. They came in ho<.'o
waves of migration, with type A, arriving about 3,000 to 4,000 B.C.
34

55. and type B. about 1,500 to 500 B.C. lndont!liian A was tall, slender
with light complexion, and thin lips. Indonesian Bwas shorter, with
bulky body, dark complexion, and thick lips. They were able to
displac~ the Negritos to the mountains with their more advanced
(:ulture.
~ lastto reach thearchipelago were the seaf;~ringMalayswho
introduced the Iron Age culture. They moved into the islands from
300 B.C. to the 14"· and 15"' centuries A.D.
Beyer's migration theory became popular and unquestioned
forquitea nwnberofyears. Presently, th~so·tal.ledWRvesofmigratio11
isnow hei.ngdi~missed bec"usethere i.:;nodefiniteevidence, whether
archaeologic;~lor historical, tosupport it. Noevidenceofany "Dawn
Man'' type (250,000 years ago) or hominid species have btoen found
in the country. So far, the oldest human relicdiscovered is onlyabout
22,000 13P.
In reality, Southeast Asian people shared many customs and
tr,1diti<">ns withoutanyethnic group raciallyorculturally dontinant.
It WiiS the We~tem colonizers who divided the Asian inhabitants
into ethnic groups.
In place of the waves of migration theory, modem scholal'!l
suggest the so·called corepopulation theqry. Accordingto this theory,
the inhabitants of the Philippines conSist of a core population to
which came accretions of people who moved in from the region.
Th~ movements of people were erratic rather than in sequential
vvaves.
The South~ast Asianpeople whoreached the Philippines du.rillg
prehistoric times became the core population. Each group, the
lt•donesians, Malays,and others,stoodasequal,withoutanyofthem
racially ur culturally dominant.
Thi.s core populiilion shared common cultural traits or base
culture. They used similarly fashioned tool-;, pottery; and omaments;
and upheld common beliefs and rituals. lf there were some
differences, these may be due to some facton; like adaptation to the
environment. Furthennore, th!! immigrants did not come into the
archipelago in a fixed period of time nor with a definite destination.
35

56. ChapterTest No. 2
Na~: ____________ Date: ._ _ -·- __ _
Course, Year, and Section: _- --------------
I. Multiple Choice. Choooe the letter with the correct an~wer.
Write your aruwer on the blanks provided: (15 pts.)
__ 1. According to Visayan myth.~. the name of the
mythical bird who ple~tded to the gods for help
was
;.. Si·Kalac c. l<atala
b. Manaul d. Si-Kavay
____ 2. The legend of Bernardo Carpio presents an
explanation on how the country was
a. created c. colonized
b. changed d. shaken by earthquakes
____ 3. Jamt!s Hutton's theory now called <niformi-
tarianism upholds that
a. the movement of wat~r from the t!arth's
surface to the ahnosphere and then back to
earth i!l known as hydrologic cycle
b. 200 million years ago, there were two land
masses
c. prior to the appearance of modem man em
earth, history has to depend on the works
of the geologists
d. the laws of nature arc unchanging
____ 4. In the t6~~> century, the Dutch cartographer who
noticed that the American continents seemed to
have been separated from Europe and Africa was
a. Abraham Oteliu c. Alfred Wegner
b. Abraham Ortelius d . Alfred Wegener
36

57. 5. In the l>ook T/11• Or('{in of Contin<'IIIS aud Oco~ilrr~,
Northern Hemi:;phere was called
a. Gondw~naland c:. Pangaea
b. Laurasi~ d. Antarctica
6. Wi<ie acce}>t<tnce or th~ theory of continental drift
c~Tlu! eventually after
a. pieces of fos..'lil c•·idcnc:r. wNe gathered in
Alltarctic.1
h. the theory of pl~tc tPCtonics was established
c. a shattering volcanic cnoption
d . glacial depusi~ wr.n>. found in Africa
7. 'Ihe l'ormosan connection wa~ db'joined during the
a. Miou:nc epoch c. Oligocene P.poch
b. Pliocene epoch d. 1-'.ocene-epoch
8. The counterpart of Mindel glacial )J"riod in the ·
Unil'ed Stal~ i.~ ko10wn JS
a. Wi:>consin glacial c. Illinoian-lowan
glacial
1:>. jcr:r.cyian J>lac:iDl d . Kansan glacial
'1. On the Aot~lralian side, the continental shell was
known a:;
a. Sunda c. Pangaea
b. Sahul ·d. :'lew Guinea
10. The word felq>itw was at firstgiven by Villalobos's
men to refer to
a. Ccbu c. Samar and Lcytc
h. L~yte d . Manila
ll. Sung Dynasty so urces in 982 A.U. referred the
Philippine isl:mdsas
a. Ma·yi c. Ma-i
b. :vta-1 d. Luz.oncs
12. The Katipunan g~neral who wanted thP. country
to be named Rizaline Republic was
a. emilio Aguin,, ldo c.. Artemio Ricarte
b. Pio del Pibr
]7
d . Antonio Luna

58. 11.
Ill.
13. The ~outhcrnmost point of the Philippines i.q
a. PlLo;an Point c. Y' Ami Isle
b. Saluag Isle d. Sulu
14. Based on the migration theory ofOtley Beyer, iron
Age culture was introduced into tJ:tc Philipp~
ar:chlpclago by
a. Malay~ c. N«gritos
b. Indonesians d. Chinese
15. The Bagobo:; and B'laans are primarily found in
a. Davao Oriental c. Maguindanao
b. Davao del Sur d. Sulu Archipelago
Matching l}rpe. Match Columns A and B. Write th~ l&ters
only: (1 0 pffi.)
ColuumA ColumnB
Set!
1. R.1gang a. Mind<.Jro
_ 2. Hibok-Hibok b. Lanao
_3. Halcon·&co Mt. Range ( . Negros
4. Mt. Diwalwal d. Cc~miguin
5. Kanlaon Volcano e. Davao del Norte
Set2
1. Kalaw a. largest bat
2. Katala b. with a winw;pan of
one foot
3. Golden-crowned c. "dock" of the
flying fox mountains
_4. Pygmygoby d. croons like man
_5. Giant moth e. endemic freshwater
~cie
Essay: {S pts.each)
1. How does the country's geography affect the Filipino
people?
38

59. 2. Identify and describe theculture of the indigenouspeople
of the Philippines.
3. Why do modem day scholars oppose Beyer's waves of
migr•.tion theory?
39