Michael Russelle

1. Redesigning dairy systems for improved nitrogen use
Michael Russelle
USDA-ARS, St. Paul, MN
Where are the gaps?

2. Vision:
High and stable profitability
Positive environmental footprint
Beneficial psychologically and socially
• Animals are healthy, happy, productive
• Feed is reliable (amount and quality)
Home-grown or neighboring farms
• Diet is optimally balanced
• Yield gap of milk, meat, wool is narrowed
Quality is maintained
• Manure is returned to land that produced feed
Easy to capture, quality maintained
• Nutrient loss is minimal
Except in sold products
• Most new N from legumes
• Farm family is healthy, happy, and active
5 work days/wk, 4 weeks of vacation/yr
Strong rural community

3. Primary goal: Capture more N
Vegetation (animal) and soil organic matter
2 bank accounts
intensity -- kura clover Fertilizer N does not build soil OM
o increase resilience must be incorporated in plant roots, residue, and manure
e with bedding
with large root mass Intensify productivity
ial root characteristics more DM, N uptake
torage to retain N less water leached
e impact of fert price changes
more soil OM
eliable N supply (NH4)
the C to the soil Diversify to extend resource exploration
g water supply deep roots
ental irrigation perenniality
C4/C3 pastures
N management resilience with variable weather
cific farming approaches reduce excess available N to improve WUE
est for quality
forecasting

4. Milk, meat
Culls
Feed
Manure
Minerals
Feed
Heifers
Gases
N2 fixation
Fertilizer
Runoff Manure
Atm. dep.
Leaching
Ron Nichols, USDA

5. Shallow aquifer NO3 concentrations increase with N surplus
140
120
Nitrate conc. (mg NO3/L)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Farm N surplus (kg N /ha)
Oenema et al., 2010. J. Environ. Qual. 39:2016

6. N losses often increase with N input
Rotz et al. 2005. Crop Sci. 45:2139

7. Whole-farm nitrogen surplus – Australian dairy farms
How much do you buy? How much do you sell?
12.1 g N/L
41 contrasting dairy farms
Gourley et al., 2012. An. Prod. Sci. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/AN11337

8. Whole-farm nitrogen surplus – European dairy farms
7 g N/L
!!!
Nevens et al., 2006, J. Agric. Systems 88:142

9. Whole-farm nitrogen surplus
12.1 g N/L
The best Europe is doing
The best Australia is doing 7 g N/L
What are these producers doing?
Which practices are site-specific?
Which are broadly adoptable?
Farmers trust farmers.
Gourley et al., 2012. An. Prod. Sci. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/AN11337

10. Trim the flow
Tap the flow
Plug the leaks

11. So, the first question is:
Can you and will you utilize increased forage resource?
(hay harvest, higher stocking rate, etc.)
And the second question is:
Which response should you measure?
(soil test level, plant nutrient concentration, plant survival,
pasture yield, animal nutrient level)
D.C. Whitehead, 2000. Nutrient Elements in Grassland

12. Increase the amount of the limiting nutrient
1. adjust soil pH;
2. add the correct nutrient;
3. add inoculated legumes;
4. improve soil organic matter;
5. provide tactical irrigation.
Manure or fertilizer, supplemental feed nutrients,
mineral block, irrigation or drinking water,
or from deep-rooted or N2-fixing plants.
D.C. Whitehead, 2000. Nutrient Elements in Grassland

13. Grazing management alters nitrate leaching loss
Nitrate-N (ppm)
Highest risk
Lowest risk
It is most effective to restrict late-season grazing
Perennial ryegrass – white clover, 225 lb N/acre/year
80 cows, 17,600 lb milk/cow, 86 acres grassland on sandy soil
20 hr/day grazing, 15 April to 15 October
Humid maritime climate
Eriksen et al. orgprints.org/17879

14. How should N fertilizer be managed to reduce N2O?
Apply only when plants are N limited
Use rates <50 kg N/ha
N2O emission (kg N/ha)
— 50 kg N/ha per grazing event
— 50 kg N/ha 10% growth limited
- -▲ 50 kg N/ha 25% growth limited
-- No fertilizer applied
Eckard et al. 2006. Int. Congress Ser. 1293:76
When should manure effluent be applied to pasture?
Highest N2O emission with effluent on recently grazed, wet soil
(0.01 to 5% of effluent N when applied at 16 to 45 lb N/acre)
Apply during dry periods
Delay application after grazing
Luo et al. 2008. Plant Soil 309:119

15. +DCD
Treating pastures with dicyandiamide
NH4+ reduced nitrification (often 70%) and
improves pasture growth (often 20%)
Effect is most pronounced in urine patches
NO3-
+DCD
% Inhibition
of nitrification
Moir et al. 2007. Soil Use Manag. 23:111
Ledgard et al. 2008. Agric. Ecosys. Environ. 125:148

16. Powell and Bocher

17. FNE = Fertilizer N equivalent
Manure N availability
How good are the recommendations?
Russelle et al., 2008. U MN Ext. Bull. 08583

18. Manure on alfalfa and other legumes
• Large nutrient removal
• Limits nitrate leaching
• Limits runoff (esp. if incorporated)
• Opportunity for summer applications
BUT
• Ammonia loss and odors can be high
Univ. Missouri Ext. Serv. Les Everett
How much incorporation is required?
How much is too much?
Where does the N go?

19. PAMI, 2001
How much is too much?
160
3-year total yield (%)
140 Low soil fertility
High soil fertility
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 Check Check 4,000 8,000 16,000
Not Disturbed gal/a gal/a gal/a
disturbed (yr 1,2,3) (yr 1,3) (yr 1)
Can we afford to reduce runoff and volatilization by incorporation?
Lamb et al. 2005. Crop Sci. 45:2293 Prairie Agricultural Machinery Institute, Saskatchewan

20. Manure can improve legume yield
Photosynthate used for yield rather than N2 fixation?
Not a reason to use fertilizer N on alfalfa, but…
Ceotto and Spallacci. 2010. Field Crops Res. 95:135

21. Nitrate leaching reduced under corn with living mulch of Kura clover
Total NO3-N leached (2.5 yr)
Control 151 kg N/ha
Living mulch + 90 Kg N/ha 104 kg N/ha
Living mulch 39 kg N/ha
Ochsner et al. 2010. Agron. J. 102:1169

22. J.M. Baker, USDA-ARS, 2012
Maize
Kura clover
Soybean
Data from adjacent fields with same soil type , Rosemount MN 2010

23. J.M. Baker, USDA-ARS, 2012
Living mulches
Kura clover Maize

24. Corn in living mulch
Rosemount, MN 2011
Silage production
equivalent to
conventional corn,
with substantially less
N fertilizer
IF water is not limiting
J.M. Baker, USDA-ARS, 2012

25. J.M. Baker, USDA-ARS, 2012

26. Coefficient of variation (%)
60 Maize Soybean
50
y = 84 - 10.0x + 0.29x2 y = 120 - 54.1x + 6.44x2
40 r2 = 0.92; p<0.001
2
r = 0.88; p<0.001
30
20
Irrigated
10 Rainfed
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
-1 Grassini and Cassman, Univ. of Nebraska, unpublished
Grain yield (Mg ha )
Deeply-rooted
perennials can exhibit
more stable yields
than annuals

27. A corn belt paradox
• Plenty of water – that could support more crop
growth
• Often too much – Many of the most productive fields
in the region have some form of artificial drainage
• But sometimes not enough – Short-term drought is
a major cause of yield loss, and a disincentive to
perennialization
J.M. Baker, USDA-ARS, 2012

28. How do we adapt?
• Rejuvenate landscape water storage capacity
• Link it to supplemental irrigation
• Use the water to
a) alleviate short-term drought at critical times;
b) increase net productivity, with cropping
practices that use more of the growing season.
J.M. Baker, USDA-ARS, 2012

29. J.M. Baker,
USDA-ARS, 2012

30. Watonwan County, MN
1140 km2
White = urban
Corn & soybean crop insurance payments, Watonwan County 2000-2011
flooded or wet soil - $3,170,336 drought - $5,938,457 J.M. Baker, USDA-ARS, 2012

31. J.M. Baker, USDA-ARS, 2012
Increase landscape water storage capacity

32. Deficit Irrigation
Hochman et al., 2011, Eur. J. Agron. doi:10.1016.j.eja.2011.11.003

33. Reshape the land surface for water harvesting and management
Small-profile landshaping, fit to equipment, livestock
high-efficiency storage
deficit irrigation, SDI
Drain tile (plug in dry years, collect in wet)
0.1m
10m
D. Farmer et al., 2004. 13th Int. Soil Conserv. Org. Conf., paper 729

34. Managed drainage
Peggy Greb, USDA
Kelly Nelson, Univ. Missouri
Busman and Sands, 2009. Univ. Minnesota Ext., WW-07740

35. Supplemental irrigation
Increased yield potential
Improved N use efficiency
Dylan Hirsch, 2011, Quantifying irrigation demand for water harvesting system design. Bach. Eng. diss. Univ. W. Australia with Neil Coles

36. Water harvesting with supplemental irrigation
Growing season rainfall: 200 mm
Supplemental irrigation: 60 mm 160 mm
Yield potential increase to: 4.3 t/ha 5.9 t/ha
> Allocating land to water production may pay
Relevant rainfall (mm)
Yield (t/ha)
Catchment
Growing season rainfall
Yield potential (control)
Yield potential (SI)
Dylan Hirsch, 2011, Quantifying irrigation demand for water harvesting system design. Bach. Eng. diss. Univ. W. Australia with Neil Coles

37. Soil organic matter supports stability in wheat yield
Regions with
marginal climate
Regions with
normal climate
Pan et al., 2009, Agric. Ecosys. Environ. 129:344-348

38. Maximum Return to Nitrogen (MRTN)
Sawyer et al. 2006. extension.iastate.edu. PM2015

39. Maximum Return to N
Flat profit function
Sawyer et al. 2006. extension.iastate.edu. PM2015

40. Maximum Return to N
+/- $1/ac
Sawyer et al. 2006. extension.iastate.edu. PM2015

41. Alfalfa-corn rotations conserve resources
Tim McCabe, NRCS Don Reicosky, USDA-ARS
• Deep roots recover • Fertilizer N credit
leached N • Less pesticide use
• Utilizes shallow GW • Spread labor needs
• Improves soil tilth • Improves aesthetics
• Erosion control • Wildlife habitat

42. Why worry about manure?
Inexpensive source of nutrients
Can improve soil organic matter
‘Handy’
Major source of contamination of water and air
Improve distribution of urine and dung
Improve retention of ammonium-N
reduce impact of fert price changes
more reliable N supply (NH4) – reduce risk

43. Feed management rules!
Improving the ration is effective and profitable
Powell et al., 2010. Environ. Sci. Policy 13:217

44. Supplementation on pasture

45. Feed quality influences manure quality and nutrient cycling
Tannins help improve feed N utilization,
reduce urinary N excretion,
lower ammonia emissions by up to 45%,
and may reduce methane emission.
MacAdam et al. 2006. 10.1094/FG-2006-0912-01-RV

46. They do rather spotty jobs
and where they pee, you often see
Urine Dung
Pre-grazing
5 weeks post-grazing
K. Auerswald et al. 2010. Nutrient
Cycl. Agroecosys. 88:275 Keith Betteridge, AgResearch

47. Variable N rate applicator
1 m2 areas scanned, N rate predicted,
N applied based on projected yield and likelihood of economic response
Bill Raun, Oklahoma State Univ., nue.okstate.edu

48. VRT on established bermudagrass pasture
N rate based on NDVI value
• produced similar forage yield
• reduced yield variability
• reduced fertilizer N by 60%
Prefertilization, May 28 First harvest, June 27
Var
336
672
Var
336
672
0
0 kg N/ha
Taylor et al., 1998, J. Plant Nutr. 21:2287

49. Whole-farm nitrogen balance
12.1 g N/L
Mean loading rates:
Location kg N/day
Dry paddocks 32.2
Surplus
Night paddocks 33.6
Yards 10.1
Laneway 7.1
Feedpad 6.3
Holding area 4.1
High accumulation in some spots
No soil organic matter build-up
Ammonia, N2O, nitrate, and runoff losses
Gourley et al., 2012. An. Prod. Sci. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/AN11337

50. Urine capture
Plastic-lined, woodchip covered loafing area
Urination (%) Milk
Treatments Pastures Dairy + pad (kg/cow/d)
> Control 89 11 24.0
> Confined 2 4-hr periods after milking 54 46 22.1
> Confined 1 8-hr period between milking 51 49 20.8
Similar urine distribution, but no difference in milk production in late lactation
Clark et al., 2010, J. Dairy Sci. 93:2280

51. We know where they be, and know when they pee….
Betteridge et al., 2010, Computers Electronics Agric. 73:66

52. “Direct deposit” vs daily haul
During 3 to 4 wk after application:
~ 82% loss from barn manure
(after 20-30% loss in barn)
~ 30% from corralling
Corralling livestock on a fine-textured soil
• improved crop yield and N uptake
• reduced ammonia volatilization losses
• maintained low nitrate leaching losses
• improved short-term mineralization potential

53. High water use
High nitrate uptake capacity
Deep rooting
High profitability
High N supply to next crop
Forages, OR State Univ. Rockwell

54. Global Distribution of Agricultural Ecosystems
• 50% more agricultural production needed by
2050 (Tilman et al., 2001)
•Bringing crop yields to their potential will
require more chemicals, nutrients, and water
(Licker and Foley, 2010)
Foley et al., 2005, Science, 309: 570-574 Courtesy of T.J. Griffis

55. In California,
fertilizer N rate matters,
but is not the whole story
< 1 ppm NO3
15-22
45-90
100-150
< 15
200-300
30-50
>500
Harter et al. 2012. Addressing NO3 in CA drinking water

56. Cropland
NUE
N Surplus
Water flux
Harter et al. 2012. Addressing NO3 in CA drinking water

57. Protease inhibitors reduce N mineralization from soil OM and plant residue
Purified proteases applied to soil or soil + alfalfa; 50-day incubation
40
(a)
CS+Complete PI (D0+D25)
Soil only
30
CS+Aprotinin
CS+Complete PI
CS+EDTA
CS+Leupeptin
Control soil (CS)
Net N Mineralized (mg/kg soil)
20
Complete ‘cocktail’ best
10
0
120
(b)
Soil + alfalfa
CSA+Complete PI (D0+D25)
100
Control soil + alfalfa (CSA)
80
Complete ‘cocktail’ best
CSA+Complete PI
60 with 2X dose
CSA+Leupeptin
CSA+Aprotinin
(11 Mg/ha tissue added)
CSA+EDTA
40
20
0
Kuldip Kumar et al., 2004, in D.J. Hatch (ed) Controlling nitrogen flows and losses, p.186-7

58. Protease inhibitor activity can delay N mineralization and nitrate leaching
Brassica residues with (line 108b) and without the Pin 2 from potato
Leaves mechanically wounded 3 days before adding to soil (1.5-2X increase in PI activity)
PI-transgenic Non-PI isogenic
PI- transgenic Non-PI-isogenic
140 (a) 40
120
100 *
30
Conc. Inorganic N in leachate (mg(mg/L)
80
Residue N mineralized (% of applied)
of inorganic-N in leachate L )
Residue N mineralized (%)
* 20
-1
60
Mixed with soil
40 10
*
20 *
*
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Days
140 (b)
40
120
100 30
*
80
20
60
* On soil surface
40 * *
10
*
20
*
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Days Kuldip Kumar et al., 2006, Agron. J. 98:514

59. Manure is not applied to the entire land base
29 farms in Victoria, Australia, and Wisconsin, USA
C = Confinement
C, EY = Confinement with exercise yard
C, SG = Confinement with seasonal grazing
YG = Year-round grazing
YG, FP = Year-round grazing with feeding area
Gourley et al. 2012. Agric. Ecosys. Environ. 147:73