UGC NET Paper 1 Mathematical Reasoning & Aptitude.pdf
Intro to visual art 1 online
1. 1
What is art?
Art is many things to many people.
Decoration. Investment. Historical record.
There are many definitions of art.
The instructor sums it up in two words: creative communication.
What is the purpose for art?
There are as many different purposes for art as there are people.
2. 2
Terminology
• BC = Before Christ
• BCE = Before Christian Era
or Before Common Era
• BC = BCE
• (But BCE is more politically correct to some folks.)
• AD = Does NOT mean “After Death.”
Anno Domini (The year of our Lord)
4. 4
Opera House 1911
The artist who created the images on this slide and the
previous slide grew up in a middle-class home. His father
was a civil servant who expected his son to follow in his
footsteps in seeking a safe and reliable career. But the young
man had other ambitions.
After graduating from high school he traveled to the big city
and applied for admission to the university hoping to study art
or architecture. But competition for enrollment was intense
and the would-be artist failed to make the grade. He stayed on
in the city, working odd jobs and selling a few paintings on
the street waiting for the next application period. He was
once again turned away.
By this time the young man was living on the street, evicted
from his apartment for failure to pay his rent. Food was
scarce and he was barely staying alive. Then his dreams of a
college education were fully dashed when the First World War
erupted and he found himself in the army and headed for
France.
5. 5
Opera House
Continued
After his military service… during which he was wounded at least once and decorated for bravery… he returned home to find no
jobs and a depressed economy. Many veterans were in the same boat.
One night in a café he was approached by a man who had overheard him speaking to a group of friends and asked if he would be
interested in becoming a professional speaker for one of the political parties. This was before radio and television and candidates
would hire speakers to address gatherings on their behalf. He readily accepted the job and excelled at public speaking.
Eventually he was convinced to run for office and in his first try he won the election and was chosen by the people to lead the
country.
The next slide is a portrait of this famous artist. Although he is not famous for his art…
6. 6
In 1933 Adolf Hitler was elected chancellor of
Germany and became the worst mass-murdering
dictator in history.
He maintained his interest in art and used it for
propaganda purposes. We can only wonder how
different the world would be if that damn college
had just let him in.
7. 7
This is a hand lotion ad from a newspaper using a
subliminal image. Subliminal messages are those that
are meant to be seen without the viewer consciously
realizing it. They are intended to influence shoppers on
a subconscious level. These hidden messages can be
either pictures or words. See if you can spot the hidden
image in this ad designed to encourage sales.
8. 8
This detail (close-up view) reveals the image of a bared
breast. In Western culture nudity is most often associated
with sex but in art nudity can symbolize a variety of concepts.
Breasts can represent motherhood, family and nurturing. The
image of the bare breast is included in the ad to influence
female shoppers who will see the image and associate the
product with home and family.
A woman may go to the store and buy this product after
seeing this ad and not even know why she is choosing this
product from among the many offered. It’s because she is
responding to the positive feelings she experienced when
viewing the ad.
9. Here’s an example of words used as subliminal messages. Sex sells is an old
advertising saying. Do you see how they created the word sex on the package?
10. This candy is sold
in movie theaters.
Can they be any
more obvious with
the sexually
suggestive image?
No, I am not
making this up.
That’s an actual
box of candy.
11. This was a
display ad in a
Walmart store.
They were
selling flip-
flops. Is that
what you see
in the image or
do you see a
woman
bending over
with her bikini
bottom falling
off?
12. 12
Christmas Tree by Christopher
Abstract originally meant reduced to its most basic
elements. Somehow the meaning has become
interchangeable with nonrepresentational. The water-color
painting at right is really abstract rather than
nonrepresentational which means that it isn’t recognizable.
Do you recognize the object? After trying to figure out what
it is, click for the answer.
The tree is in fact recognizable but the rendering is very
simplistic.
The artist was four years old.
13. 13
This painting is truly
nonrepresentational as it was
painted in 1958 by a chimpanzee
named Congo. Lacking human
intelligence it is totally random
and meaningless.
14. 14
The notion of lesser animals
creating art is not a new one.
This photo from the early
20th
century was staged by
some famous artists to
ridicule the idea of animal
artists.
15. 15
Sammy the Dog
Zoo animals, pets, and other
creatures are often portrayed as
creative artists. Sometimes done
for fund-raising purposes, it’s
highly unlikely that such
endeavors can really be called art
by any reasonable interpretation of
the word..
16. 16
Moses 1395 Claus Sluter
Throughout the Renaissance Moses was routinely
depicted as having horns.
17. 17
Moses 1515 Michelangelo
Even Michelangelo put horns on Moses. It turned out
that this was due to a misinterpretation of ancient
Hebrew religious texts. The word for “horn” was
similar to the word for “light.” The text was misread as
saying “Moses had horns emanating from his head”
when it actually said that he had light emanating from
his head. In other words, Moses should have been
depicted with a halo like the saints, angels, and other
Biblical figures.
18. 18
St. John 1412 Donatello
This is two photos of the same statue taken from
different angles. Sculpture, being three-
dimensional, can be affected by the viewing angle
and lighting.
On the right, we look up at the figure making him
appear powerful, wise and dynamic. Looking at
him straight in the face on the left makes him look
like a tired old man.
Generally speaking, looking up at people makes
them look more heroic.
19. 19
Symbolic Representation
When asked to identify what is seen in this
image most students respond that they see a
train. Of course, there is no train in the
classroom and what they are seeing is
actually a photograph of a train. This is a
symbolic representation of a train.
Other objects in art may be used to
symbolize things, people or ideas
completely different from the actual object
being depicted. Some of these symbols are
well-known to artists and are commonly
used, others may be more specific to a
particular artist.
20. 20
Analysis of Symbolic Representation
When we try to determine the meaning of the objects we see in art it’s called analyzing
the image. There are two basic ways to attempt this analysis; either try to figure out
what message the artist intended for the viewer to perceive or if that’s not possible, or
if it’s not desired, then the viewer can analyze the image to suit his or her own vision.
There are virtually no limits on the number of differing analysis that can be produced.
The train could be seen as representing the American economy. It’s big and strong,
producing goods and services. It may be slowed by a bend in the tracks, symbolizing
an economic slow-down, but stoking the furnace with tax cuts, low labor costs and
favorable interest rates on business loans will drive the economy back up to speed.
An environmentalist might see the train as representing the destruction of the Earth’s
resources. It required felling trees to lay the tracks; tearing up mountains to dig the
coal needed to fuel the engine; then it spews pollution into the air and drips oil as it
rolls along fouling the soil.
Totally different versions yet both completely valid. The next two slides contains a list
of some symbolic representations. This is not by any means a complete list, just a
starting point.
21. 21
Animals:
Horse: Speed, power, movement, travel, transition, work, or in some cases high status.
Bull: Masculinity, power, aggression, destruction, savagery, bravery, or determination.
Dog: Loyalty, faithfulness, devotion, companionship, trust, or partnership.
Sheep: Obedience, loyalty, mildness, subservience, or conformity.
Snake: Stealth, deception, evil, wile, corruption, healing, or fertility.
Bird: Freedom, escape, high status, metaphysical, occult, divine, war, or peace.
Lion: Majesty, royalty, bravery, strength, or savagery.
Shark: Danger, killer, unfair, uncompassionate, cold, brutal, or menacing.
Ape: Jungle instinct, savage nature, uncouth behavior or Man’s darker side.
Colors
Red: Danger, stop, blood, life, death, pain, heat, war, or courage.
Blue: Loneliness, solitude, sadness, cold, or depression.
Yellow: Cowardice, caution, wealth, sickness, or age.
Green: Fertility, resurrection, health, or coolness.
Black: Sinister, evil, unknown, death, aggression, or unlawfulness.
White: Purity, life, death, innocence, cleanliness, a fresh start or lawfulness.
Objects:
River or stream: Transition, movement, or obstacle.
Wall or fence: Obstacle, or opponent.
Gate, door, window, ladder or stairs: Opportunity, escape, or access and thus also free will.
Any motorized vehicle or manufactured item: Modern industrialization, mass production, travel or transition.
Scientific instruments: Science, discovery, education or progress.
Lantern, candle, torch: Education, learning, schooling, intellectualism.
Books or writing devices: Education, learning, or literacy.
The head: Leadership, authority.
Legs: Travel or transition.
Arms: Strength.
Hands: Control.
22. 22
Some commonly recognized symbolic representations
A single lighted candle: The presence of Jesus Christ
A convex (rounded) mirror: The presence of God
The sun or rays of sunlight can also symbolize God
Swords and later firearms: Power (also relate to authority and prestige)
Hats, helmets and anything else worn on the head: Authority or leadership
Eggs, fruit with many seeds or animals that reproduce quickly or in great numbers: Fertility
Shoes, motor vehicles, bicycles or any other means of transportation: Travel and/or transition*
Armor: Something offering protection
Books: Knowledge or learning, law
Lamps or lanterns: Knowledge or learning, hope
*The concept of transition, changing from one status of condition to another, is difficult to symbolize so artists cheat and use
anything that can symbolize travel. Any object that can symbolize travel may also be used to represent transition and many
cases both concepts are implied.
23. 23
Analysis of the State of Liberty
The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor is the figure of
woman who stands upon a pedestal with a book under one
arm while her other hand holds aloft a burning torch. She
may represent motherhood, perhaps symbolizing that this
country is the mother country or birthplace of freedom and
liberty. This is where high ideals are born, and where brave
people are nurtured. She may also stand for family as women
are often seen as the backbones of the family unit,
symbolizing that America is a nation united into a single
family and built upon the strength of womanhood, and or
motherhood.
The figure’s face is feminine, yet strong and determined.
This could represent the strength of character Americans
believe they possess. It could also symbolize our own
determination to survive, to prosper, and to hold our proper
place in the world. The figure’s eyes gaze off into the
distance, looking towards the future as a symbol of our desire
to lead the world into that future.
The pedestal upon which she stands may represent achieving
a higher ideal, or climbing to the peak of human endeavor.
Perhaps the pedestal stands for faith in God, and she may be
seen as elevating the goals and ideals of America, or even
America itself, to a divine level by climbing to the heavens.
The pedestal may also represent our family or cultural values,
being the strong and sturdy base upon which our society is
built.
24. 24
Statue of Liberty continued
Perhaps the pedestal represents the faith upon which this nation was founded, or it could symbolize our forefathers who established
this nation and whose early efforts we now depend on to support us. What they made is strong and enduring, as is the foundation
for the statue. The pedestal is made of stone, symbolizing our strength as a nation and as a people as we build upon the foundation
left for us. Perhaps the base is America, with the figure of the woman representing our goals and ideals supported by the “rock-
solid” foundation that is America.
The figure is garbed in a long dress. Its simplicity may represent our own modesty or maybe our practicality. The sandals on her
feet might represent our religious roots, as Christians often associate sandals with Jesus and the Apostles. Her simple dress could
be seen as a toga, such as would be worn in ancient Greece. Combined with the sandals, this manner of dress would give her the
appearance of the ancient Greeks, a people we tend to admire and whom we have emulated for so many aspects of our culture and
society. This statue could be seen as paying homage to the ancient people from whom we have borrowed so much. Or it could be
viewed as a means of associating ourselves with the ancient Greeks, who are often considered to have been wise and educated, the
philosophers, teachers, and great thinkers from history.
The book may be seen as indicating our thirst for knowledge, or our desire to educate ourselves in order to be world leaders. The
book may be a book of laws, indicating that ours is a society built on a system of equal justice for all. It could also stand for our
desire to educate all of our children so that none are left ignorant and uneducated. The book may even be seen as a register
containing the names of all the immigrants who came to this country seeking a new and better life. Or perhaps it is a list of our
achievements as a nation.
The torch could be seen as the light of freedom, signaling the way for others to find the path leading here. Maybe it represents our
enlightened society, symbolizing how we have driven away the darkness of ignorance, fear, and evil. It could symbolize a means of
drawing attention to ourselves, to make us stand out in a world of darkness as a nation worth noticing and emulating.
25. 25
Statue on Campus at Rick’s College (BYU ID)
Schools operated by Churches
concern themselves with not
just the education of the
students’ minds, but also with
their moral and spiritual well
being.
This sculpture on campus at a
Mormon college shows two
students behaving as the Latter
Day Saint faith would have
them act while on campus. The
two figures seem to ignore each
other as they concentrate on
their books. The message is
that students are not here to
have parties, they are here to
learn.
The fact that the female figure’s
knees are tightly clamped
together suggests that sex is
also to be avoided.
26. 26
The casual attitude of the
model for this photo used in a
course schedule at a state-
supported Public college
seems to suggest an entirely
different message than the
sculpture on campus at the
Mormon college.
27. 27
There’s no way Like the American Way 1937 Margaret Bourke White
Most books state that this photo
shows the division of whites and
blacks in America. The usual
explanation is that a line of poor
black people waiting in a food line
stand before a billboard touting the
greatness of America’s standard of
living. If one is white then drives a
fine car and is smiling and happy in
prosperity. But if one is black then
one must wait for a handout to
survive.
But a closer look reveals the people in
line don’t really look poor, being
clean and well dressed. The original
title of this photograph was After the
Louisville Flood and these people
await assistance only because they
have been temporarily displaced from
their homes by the flooding in their
neighborhood. A few blocks over
was likely a similar line made up of
white residents (the city would have
been segregated at this time) as their
neighborhood was also flooded.
28. 28
Liberty Leading the People 1830 Eugene Delacroix
After years of internal strife and
warfare France was in a desperate
state. Delacroix seems to be
encouraging all French citizens-
young and old; men and women,
rich and poor to rise up and fight
to overthrow an unpopular king
whose soldiers are seen as lying
dead before the rioting mass.
One victim of the violence seen in
the lower left has not only lost his
life in the struggle, but also his
trousers. The nudity could
symbolize the loss he has
suffered, which since he has lost
his life he has lost everything.
The artist might be warning the
viewer that this ultimate sacrifice
may be asked of people in order to
save the country.
The figure of Liberty bares her
breasts not to be sexually
stimulating but to symbolize
motherhood and nurturing. All
must nurture our mother country
and save her from destruction.
29. 29
Norman Rockwell was an American artist who is best known for painting covers for
the Saturday Evening Post magazine. Although most people tend to associate his work
with homespun scenes of Americana, family and values such as duty and honesty,
many of his paintings contain serious social commentary.
30. 30
Rosie the Riveter 1943 Norman Rockwell
Rosie was created to star in an ad campaign to encourage
women to come and work in factories during World War II
when many men were serving in uniform. Her image is meant
to celebrate the strength these women demonstrated in doing
men’s jobs and to reassure them that they would not lose their
femininity by working in jobs seen as traditionally for men.
Rosie’s arms are huge and muscular to symbolize the strength
of the women who stepped up when their country needed
them. But her face is still cute and feminine. She eats a large
sandwich. This could symbolize the paycheck she and the
other women received. It’s a man’s sandwich representing the
man’s pay they got for doing a man’s job.
The clear face shield pushed up on Rosie’s head so she can eat
appears like a halo over her head. The artist was a devoutly
religious man for whom calling someone an angel would be
the highest compliment and that seems to be what he’s saying
about these women.
Note: This painting was recently purchased by Alice Walton
who is organizing the Crystal Bridges Museum of American
Art in Bentonville and will be on display when the museum
opens. The price paid for the painting was $30 million.
32. 32
The location for this painting can be determined by the red flag and the lantern setting on top of the travel trunk. These items would be
found in a train depot operating before being wired for electricity. These items would not have been used at a bus station or an airport.
We can tell it’s a rural setting because the ground is dirt and not paved. The two men are sitting on the running board of an old pick up
truck. It’s likely a farm truck because of the wooden side boards on the bed, something seen in agricultural use. One man is older while
the other is still a youngster, probably in his teens. We don’t know for certain what the relationship is between the two individuals so we
must make an assumption. There doesn’t appear to be any reason to discount them being father and son and this appears to be the most
logical conclusion based on the scant evidence available. When making an assumption it should be stated as such right up front and from
that point on what was assumed may be discussed as fact.
The father is dressed in gray, and his posture is slumping. Older people often represent the past. The youngster is erect and seems filled
with anticipation. His suit is white, and white can symbolize a fresh start or a new beginning. Children or young people can symbolize the
future. The artist gives us a clue that the young man is the future by having him face in the same direction the truck is parked while his
father looks back.
The suitcase represents travel and in this case also transition. The decals tell us he is going off to college so he is indeed traveling and
making changes in his life. The books on the suitcase symbolize knowledge and learning, which he will do as student. The artist even tells
us that he will be a good student by place bookmarks in all of the books. Not even on campus yet, the youngster is already reading his
textbooks and will be prepared in class.
The dog symbolizes loyalty. This is a common symbolic representation but bear in mind it’s never the dog being loyal. Someone or
something is being loyal but it’s never the dog. In this painting it’s obvious the father is being loyal to his son by allowing him to leave the
farm. A healthy young man would be a great resource on a family farm and it’s a sacrifice for the family to let him pursue his dream of a
college education. For his part, the young student promises to study and succeed (and he has already started by reading his books).
A sack lunch is held in the son’s lap. He clasps it with both hands as if to never let it go. This nourishment represents his mother and by
extension his entire family. The reality of leaving home will likely not hit him until he opens the wrapper hours from now on the train.
The father holds both his and his son’s hats. A hat can symbolize authority and this is a powerful symbol in this painting. When the train
arrives they will stand and the father will hand his son his hat, signifying that he is now own his own, and adult and a man responsible for
himself. It will be a very powerful moment.
Breaking Home Ties 1954 Norman Rockwell
33. 33
Sergeant’s Coat Thanksgiving 1943 Norman Rockwell
The November, 1943 issue carried an image of a
woman wearing a soldier’s coat and giving thanks
for the small portion of food which was also a gift
from the soldier (it’s in a plate that would be part of
a military mess kit so we know the source of the
food). The broken and fallen architectural columns
suggests we are in Italy, a country certainly
damaged by the war. These columns could
symbolize the loss of the woman’s home, family or
even hope. But her life was spared by the
generosity of some American soldiers (note the flag
on the sleeve identifying the source).
Rockwell is saying that soldiers don’t just come to
kill and destroy, but also to save. By extension,
Rockwell is saying all Americans are
compassionate and generous.
A secondary message in this painting may be
directed to Americans who by 1943 were likely
grumbling about the lack of consumer goods due to
the war effort. He is telling any who might be
griping to shut up and be grateful for what they
have like the young woman in the painting who
thanks God for so simple a blessing as a coat and
crust of bread.
34. 34
Homecoming GI May 26, 1945 Norman Rockwell
The title of this painting refers to the time when the war in
Europe was ending and the soldiers started returning home. The
young soldier arrives home and his family rushes out to greet
him as a girl, maybe the neighbor who was too young for in the
past, waits to surprise him.
The soldier’s duffle bag symbolizes travel and transition and he
has done both as he went around the world and fought a war for
freedom. His family is all dressed in red, white and blue
reminding us of the American flag and adding a patriotic note to
the image.
The clean, white laundry hanging on the line could represent a
fresh start for the country or perhaps even the whole world. The
man working on the roof may represent how the country… or
again the world… needed some “fixing up” after the war years.
The ever-present dog symbolizes the loyalty of the young
soldier to his nation and his family and they have been loyal to
him by keeping him in their hearts and by welcoming him
home.
Windows are often seen as opportunity for the future and the
children seen hanging from the windows may symbolize the
future and the opportunity to make it a better one.
35. 35
New Television Antenna 1949 Rockwell
The old man could represent the past and the
young man the future (with this new TV thing
being a part of the future). The house is
weathered and in need of repair but that can
wait while we install this new TV. The house
with the antenna at its peak mirrors the church
to the right, perhaps indicating that TV will
replace religion as the guiding force in
American’s lives. The ladder leaning against
the house might symbolize the transition into
the modern age, the coming of new
technology, or the loss of family and tradition.
36. 36
Death, Knight and Devil 1513 Albrect Dürer
Printmaking was revolutionary for art because for the first
time in history it allowed average working class people to buy
art. Prior to this, paintings and sculpture were so expensive
that they were luxury items, purchased only by the wealthy,
the Church and the government (king). Because prints were
mass produced, it brought the unit price down to where
almost anyone could afford to buy them.
Albrect Dürer was a German artist who became famous for
his prints. He is also known as the first artist in history to sue
someone in civil court for making unauthorized copies of his
work. This print is filled with symbolism that supports a
Christian lifestyle.
Death is depicted as the ghastly looking figure beside the
knight. He holds and hour glass to remind the knight that his
days are numbered and his time is running. The hourglass
was a common attribute for Death during the Renaissance.
An attribute is an object closely associated with an individual
or group and allows us to identify the bearer. Later Death’s
attribute would become the scythe, the large sickle he is seen
carrying on his shoulder.
Behind the knight comes the Devil, rendered to look like a
goat. This was common in religious art from the Early
Christian Era right through the Renaissance. The goat had
been a powerful Pagan fertility symbol, second only to the
snake, and Christians made the goat evil by associating it
with Satan to dissuade the Pagan worship of these animals.
The snake is demonized for the same purpose by making the
serpent the villain in the garden of Eden story from the Bible.
37. 37
Despite having Death and the Devil trying to frighten and intimidate him, the knight rides along resolutely,
unconcerned by their presence. The knight is confident that he is protected from their influence. His armor
protects him. Of course metal armor can’t protect us from the Devil, or Death if it’s our time, so obviously the
armor is a symbolic representation of that which emboldens the knight.
The armor represents his faith. He is a devout Christian and his faith in God, his relationship with God and his
Church, protects him from sin and evil. The horse elevates him, symbolizing his superior status as a righteous man.
The sword is a power symbol, usually representing secular power but in this case perhaps referring to the power of
the Lord to watch over and protect His followers.
He dog that accompanies him symbolizes the faithfulness and loyalty exchanged between the knight and God. The
castle on the hilltop could represent heaven, the knight’s ultimate destination.
Death, Knight and Devil by Albrect Dürer 1513 (continued)
38. 38
Venus and Pan. Roman Copy of Greek original.
Venus was the Roman goddess of love and beauty. Pan was a satyr.
Satyrs spent all their time seeking women to have sex with them. Being
half man and half goat they must have been very charming to have
enjoyed any success at all in their quest. The goat was a major Pagan
fertility symbol so having the lascivious satyr part goat makes sense.
Here Venus seems to be fending off pan’s advances, going so far as to
swat at him with her shoe (an insulting sign of contempt in some
cultures) while Cupid, Venus’ son, tries to hold Pan at bay by grasping
his horn.
Horns and antlers are used in mating by those animals that wear them so
horns became fertility symbols and may have been the source for the use
of the word “horny” to mean in the mood for love.
39. 39
Following the conversion of Pagan Rome to Christianity
in the 4th
century, art in all of Europe was forced to
conform to Christian sensibilities. Sculpture fell out of
favor because of its popularity with Pagans and nudity in
art was not tolerated as Christians considered it to be
offensive as well as Pagan. It would be nearly 1,000 years
before a European artist would exhibit a nude sculpture.
This statue broke the moratorium on nude sculpture. The
artist was prosecuted by the Church or imprisoned by the
king so he apparently got away with this bold move.
One question remains unanswered. Is the sculptural figure
male or female?
40. 40
David 1430 Donatello
Even when viewed from the front it may be difficult to
immediately identify the gender of the figure. But as the title
states it is in fact David, the Biblical king and hero of the story
involving the defeat of the giant, Goliath.
The hat David wears is not one that would have been worn in
Biblical times. It’s a man’s hat that would have been
fashionable in 15th
century Florence, the city where Donatello
lived and worked.
41. 41
This full-length view reveals that the victorious David stands with his foot
upon the severed head of Goliath (Slide 46), whom he had felled with a
stone from his sling before beheading with the giant’s own sword.
Goliath wears a helmet of the Roman style. At this time Italy was not the
unified nation we know today but was made up of independent city states.
Rome was the largest and most powerful of the city states and Florence was
comparatively small and weak, being most known as an art center.
When the statue was erected in the city square an angry mob tried to pull it
down. It was the nudity that concerned them, but the fact that they feared
the Romans would be insulted by the sculpture. Indeed, with the Florentine
hat, and Goliath’s Roman helmet, Rome may have perceived this statue as
suggesting that the smaller Florence could defeat the larger Rome just as
David slew Goliath. It didn’t help matters when the statue was placed so as
to face Rome in what could be interpreted as open defiance. But apparently
Rome ignored the insult.
The sword handle is another symbolic representation. It is quire phallic
looking (a phallus symbol suggests a penis) and likely represents that David
took Goliath’s manhood along with his sword and his life.
But why did the artist choose make David so un-heroic looking? Rather
than a muscular and athletic physique, Donatello depicts David as puny,
even feminine. Certainly not heroic.
42. 42
Perhaps the message to us is that one does not need to look
like a hero to do heroic things.
44. 44
Wedding Portrait 1434 Jan Van Eyck
This painting has long been known as The Arnolfini Wedding
Portrait as it understood to depict the marriage ceremony of
Giovanni Arnolfini and Giovanna Cenami. However, some
sources have recently suggested that this in fact a depiction of
the betrothal rather than of the actual wedding ceremony. I
believe that it can be demonstrated beyond argument that this
painting is indeed of the wedding itself and not the betrothal.
First, the bride wears a wedding gown. In Western culture the
current trend is towards white gowns, symbolizing purity of
spirit, chastity of the body, and the clean start on a new life
together. But in Renaissance Europe the popular color for
wedding gowns was green, to represent the bride’s willingness
and desire to conceive and start a family. Green is traditionally
seen as a fertility color. Another fertility symbol is the dress
being padded to make the bride appear pregnant.
Another symbol of reproduction is the bed seen behind the
bride and groom. The ceremony is taking place in his home
rather than in a church, and the bed symbolizes that as a
married couple they may now be intimate with one another. A
bed in a portrait of an unmarried couple would be scandalous,
suggesting that they were having premarital relations.
The couple has removed their shoes. His are right beside his
stocking-clad feet (Slide 49) and hers are seen back near the
couch (50). This has long symbolized being on holy ground
and is something the early Christians borrowed from the
Pagans. It was a practice to remove one’s shoes when standing
on holy ground and since they are not in church, it must be the
fact that a religious ceremony is taking place that makes this
apartment holy, if only on a temporary basis.
47. 47
The candelabra holds but one candle despite having room for several more. In Renaissance art a common symbol for
Jesus was the single lighted candle. At least one author has suggested that the reason for using only one candle was that
candles were expensive and they were trying to economize. I suspect that candles were not so pricey as to cause a
couple with such obvious wealth as these people to fret about burning a few if needed. The lone candle is clearly
symbolic and not utilitarian.
The convex mirror on the far wall is also symbolic, representing the presence of God (Slide 52). The convex mirror,
which allows a fantastic field of view, symbolizes the “all seeing eye of God” and therefore the very presence of God
Himself. Other obvious symbols present in the painting include the dog which represents the loyalty between the
husband and wife; the fruit on the window sill and bench (53) which is a Pagan fertility symbol (today’s brides carry
flowers but in Renaissance Europe they carried fruit to distribute to the guests as they walked down the aisle); the small
broom hanging in the far right corner representing the wife’s duties in keeping the home; and the figural carving atop the
bedpost of St. Margaret, the patron saint of housewives and mothers.
The window could symbolize free will, meaning neither of the happy couple are here against their will. It could also
represent the opportunity for a bright future together.
The artist’s signature is quite unusual. Rather than signing his name in the lower corner as was customary, he signed in
the middle of the canvas with his signature seen directly above the mirror. Instead so simply writing his name, he wrote
an entire sentence, saying “I, Johann van Eych was here.” It is believed by many art historians that this statement serves
as testimony; with van Eych becoming a witness to the marriage and the painting thus assuming the role of
documentation. This might be important as the state didn’t issue marriage licenses or certificates at this time and there
could come a time when the woman may need to prove that she was legally married, such as when her husband dies and
she wants to inherit the estate. It would make no sense for this to be a painting of the betrothal, with was more like a
business negotiation than a ceremony.
Although the location of the original painting is unknown, a painting of the painting suggests that Giovanni Cenami
commissioned a portrait to give her husband as a wedding gift. This was very common amongst wealthily Europeans
and the painting presented by the bride to the groom was often an intimate portrait (Slide 54).
Wedding Portrait 1434 Jan Van Eyck (continued)
50. 50
The bride’s nudity could symbolize her purity of mind and
spirit. It could also represent her giving herself without
reservation to her husband. The convex mirror over the
basin invokes the presence of God into her marriage and in
the mirror can be seen the image of the Virgin Mary and
infant Jesus, also invited into the home of a devoutly
Christian family.
The bride’s mother is also seen, perhaps to act as
chaperone and soothe any suspicions the husband might
feel as he realized that his naked wife was in the room with
a male artist. The mother’s presence implies that the bride
posed, the artist painted, and nothing untoward happened.
51. 51
This is the painting in which can be seen the nude Cenami portrait (center of image about 1/3 in from the right) on display in a wealthy
collector’s home. The original painting appears to be lost.
53. 53
If you said it’s a submarine, no cookie for you.
It’s a PHOTOGRAPH of a submarine, remember?
Art is not real, and can never be real. When a real object is offered as art
it ceases to be real and becomes… art.
This is what painter Renee Magritte was telling us in his 1929 painting,
This is not a Pipe.
(Slide 58)
58. 58
The Lascaux Cave is located in southern France and is one of, if not the best known of the Paleolithic painted caves. Rediscovered in
1940, the walls and ceiling of the cavern are covered with fantastic paintings of animals. The first theory that was developed regarding
the cave and its animal images was the “hunting magic theory” that suggests that the prehistoric hunters somehow used the images to
gain advantage over the animals they hunted and guarantee success in the hunt. Despite this being the most popular explanation of the
cave’s use, there are a few problems with this theory. Most of the markings identified as weapons do not appear to strike the animal
images. Why have most of them miss if the point is to guarantee hunting success? Also, these markings said to be weapons don’t look
very much like actual hunting weapons. Surely these Paleolithic artists who were capable of rendering such beautiful and accurate
animal images could have done a better job of drawing spears and arrows.
Upon entering the cave the visitor is greeted by numerous paintings of bulls, deer, and other animals that were known to the Paleolithic
people who lived in the region at the time the cave was painted (Slides 63-66). However, some researchers feel the most interesting of
the animal images in the cave’s entryway is the very first animal encountered. Situated nearest to the entrance (Slide 67) is what
researchers have dubbed “The Unicorn.” Of course, unicorn means “one horn” and this animal clearly has two horns projecting from
its head. But like the unicorn of European legend, the Lascaux unicorn is a mythical creature. Of all the animals depicted in the cave
this one, the first one a visitor sees is the only one not recognizable as a realistic rendering of an actual animal.
The Hunting Magic Theory supporters have claimed that this figure may actually be a human hunter wearing an animal hide to disguise
himself. This is a technique employed by hunters but this doesn’t explain why the animal is a fictional creature rather than
recognizable as something the Paleolithic hunters pursued. Some investigators have suggested that The Unicorn may in fact be a
shaman. One of the attributes of shamanism is the ability to assume animal form. Ancient people associated animals with the spirit
world so the shaman needed this ability in order to move between the material world and spirit world. The Unicorn as a shaman
supports the contention that the cave may have been used for ritualistic purposes.
It is interesting to note that The Unicorn is not only the first animal a visitor encounters, but it is also oriented so as to seemingly direct
the visitor into the cave, with its horns pointing the way. This would make sense if The Unicorn is seen as shaman and spiritual guide.
Perhaps a mythical creature represents the shaman because the shaman is considered mythical, and not of this world.
The Paleolithic
64. 64
Many of the animal images are painted right
on top of older renderings, suggesting that
perhaps their power was only temporary and
they need not be preserved. At left is seen a
bull superposed over a deer (directly above
the front legs) and another animal nearly
hidden by the line forming the bull’s belly.
Note the row of dots just behind the bull’s
shoulder. There are many dots on the
Lascaux walls and it’s hard to imagine what
sort of weapon these are supposed to
represent.
Can you spot the other animal covered by
the bull? Look to the thick brush stroke
making the bull’s belly. Slide 69 reveals the
animal image that is nearly completely
covered by the later painting of the bull.
66. 66
Lascaux Horse
Sometimes called “Chinese Horses” due to their resemblance to horse images produced in China. Note the
markings that are often called arrows. Do they really look like actual arrows? What of the other markings that
don’t appear recognizable as weapons at all? Also notice the bare spots on the wall where paint has fallen off
because of human intrusion into the cave upsetting the atmosphere and harming the paint.
67. 67
Notice the delicate and beautiful rendering of the deer seen in Slide 72. Some question how artists so skilled could make such
crude and unrealistic renderings of weapons as the Hunting Magic Theory supporters claim they have done. Look at the markings
in Slide 73. Do these appear like artful depictions of spears and arrows consistent with the skill demonstrated in the animal
images?
70. 70
The Well Scene
Slide 75
Another Lascaux image that has confounded experts is what is called The Well Scene (Slide 75). Found at the bottom of a deep
shaft in the cave’s floor, the painting depicts what is generally accepted to be a humanoid form interacting with a bison and a
rhinoceros.
A rhinoceros? In southern France? Around 20,000-30,000 years ago much of Europe was covered with snow and ice. What we
see in this painting is a wooly rhinoceros, a species that thrived in the cold. A close examination of the painting reveals that the
artist has suggested the rhino’s long coat with multiple brushstrokes extending down its belly.
The Hunting Magic Theory people say that this scene shows a hunter being killed by a bison he wounded with a spear. But some
researchers disagree, noting that the objects interpreted to be weapons bear little if any resemblance to realistic spears and this is
odd given the very naturalistic renderings of the animals. Also, why does the hunter have what clearly appears to be an avian head?
There is another object near the human figure that looks like a rod or staff with a bird-like image affixed to the top. Those who
support the shaman theory point to this as a symbol for a shaman, meaning perhaps the human with the bird-like head is a shaman
represented as being part animal or maybe even depicted in the act of changing form. There remains a great disagreement about the
true meaning of this painting with the Hunting Magic theorists and shaman theory supporters arguing over the proper interpretation.
72. 72
Most researchers adamantly insist
that the markings in the painted
caves are not a form of written
language. Some wonder how they
can be so certain. The colored
panels seen at right surely aren’t
meant to represent weapons and
the closest object they seem to
resemble are flags or banners,
which are generally used for
group identification. If that is the
intended purpose, this would
constitute written language.
73. 73
Altimira, Spain
Hundreds of painted caves have
been found all over the world. The
cave at Lascaux is perhaps the best
known, and is arguably the largest
and most spectacular, but there are
many others with amazing art.
Maybe the second most famous of
the painted caves is Altimira Cave
in Spain. The styles in the different
caves are unique and with some
practice are recognizable from one
another.
74. 74
Cosquer Cave
Discovered by a SCUBA
diver in 1985 and not
revealed to others until
1991, the entrance to this
cave is some 100 feet
underwater and requires
swimming through about
500 feet of a submerged
tunnel to reach the cavern.
The paintings have been
dated from 18,000 to
28,000 years of age. This
would date the paintings to
the last ice age which
explains the depictions of
penguins on the walls (see
next slide) and that reminds
us of the rhino in Lascaux,
no?
76. 76
Peche Merle, Spain
It used to be that when
people found these painted
caves they did foolish
things, like in Lascaux
Cave where they
immediately excavated the
floor and installed a
concrete walkway for
visitors (see Slide 63).
Now we are more careful
with these discoveries so as
not to destroy artifacts or
information.
When this cave was
located, some truly
incredible evidence of
human visitation remained
in the sandy floor.
77. 77
Cave at Peche Merle
In this cave are the preserved footprints of the last
pair of visitors before the cave was abandoned for
many thousands of years. Two people walked side
by side to the rear of the cave, turned and walked
back out. Given that the size and depth of the
prints leads researches to conclude that the two
individuals were likely around 13 years of age this
could support the notion of the caves being used for
initiation rites.
79. 79
Owl from Cave at Chauvet
Up until now we have been looking mainly
at petrographs, or drawings on rock. This
is an example of the petroglyph, or
engraving on rock. They can be harder to
see than the paintings.
80. 80
Paleolithic Oil Lamp
This stone oil lamp bears markings
similar to those found in the caves that
are claimed to be weapons. Note that
there are no animal images on the
lamp. Why would representations of
weapons be presented in this context?
Is it not at least possible the markings
have some meaning and we simply
don’t understand the message?
81. 81
Venus of Brassempouy c. 25,000-75,000 BC
The fact that this artifact has survived at all is amazing. It is made of
ivory, an organic material and organic material tends to not survive.
First of all organic material may rot or decay. Secondly, organic
materials are often eaten by insects. This object survived by being
buried in mud where it was protected.
The figure appears to be a young woman. The exact purpose of the
sculpture is not known for certain but a good guess would be a fertility
association. In many cultures an amulet representing a fertility goddess
might be rubbed or stroked as a prayer for healthy children. The worn
facial features on this piece suggests such rubbing may have occurred.
82. 82
Lion Headed Human Figure c. 30,000 BC
This enigmatic figure carved from mastodon ivory is one of the oldest dated
sculptures known. The sex is not clear, nor is the purpose for the piece.
Possibly intended to be anthropomorphic (assigning human characteristics to
animals, see Bugs Bunny as the classic example) we are not sure if it’s a
shaman, or a deity, or some other subject.
The significance of the seven parallel lines engraved on the upper left arm is
also unknown.
83. 83
Artifact
Anything that shows the effect of
the hand of Man.
If made by Man, or modified by Man, it is an artifact regardless of age or value.
84. 84
Terminology
• Free-standing sculpture also known as three-
dimensional or “in the round.”
• Relief sculpture:
Still attached to the wall or stone.
Can be “high relief” with great depth or
Low, called “bas relief” with little depth.
86. 86
Venus of Willendorf c. 25,000 BC
Slide 89
It is generally assumed that this is a fertility figure. Those parts of the body associated with reproduction such as the breasts, pubic
triangle and hips are emphasized while the parts not geared towards reproduction like the hands and feet are merely suggested.
The figure bears no facial features. Perhaps she is a goddess and depicting a deity's face was blasphemous. Or maybe she has no
face so that she can represent any woman rather than one specific individual. We identify each other by facial appearance so when
an artist denies us the face he also denies us the identity of the subject. This is often done so that a single figure may represent a
larger group.
Many researchers have assumed that the figure is depicted with an intricate hair style, represented by the pattern seen on her head.
Some have suggested this may actually be some sort of hat. This makes no sense to me. Why would she be totally nude and wear a
hat?
Note that Slide 89 shows two photos of this artifact. One is a reverse image and I have determined that the right side image is
correct. Both versions routinely appear in publication and on web sites. Clearly a reversed image of this artifact has been used in
publication and possibly it has gone unnoticed. Slide 91 is the correct version.
The side view (Slide 91) shows the corpulence of the figure. There is medical research showing that body fat can affect fertility and
the onset of puberty in girls. Since virtually all of these fertility figures are overweight it seems these ancient people were aware of
this fact many thousands of years ago.
It is a common practice in art to call a nude female figure Venus, after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, and Willendorf is the
Austrian village near where this object was found. Hence the object’s name.
88. 88
Many people are surprised to learn that the
Venus of Willendorf is only slightly over
four inches in height. The culture that
created it was nomadic, so large, heavy
sculpture would have been impractical or
impossible to carry around.
89. 89
Venus of Laussel c. 25,000 BC
Slides 94 & 95
Whereas the Venus of Willendorf is three-dimensional sculpture or “in the round” as it is sometimes called, the Venus of Laussel is
a relief sculpture, meaning the figure is still attached to the rock or wall. There are some similarities between these two figures and
most experts agree that the Laussel piece is also a fertility figure. Like the Willendorf figure, this one features large, obvious
breasts, hips and pubic triangle. The face is nonexistent and the hands are shallow engravings although they do play a more
significant role with this figure.
The figure’s left hand rests over abdomen, a clear fertility reference. Her right hand holds aloft a horn, from a sheep or goat. Horns
and antlers are fertility symbols in many ancient cultures and this makes sense as these are used in mating by the animals that wear
them. Females will select mates based on the size of the horns or antlers. A large “rack” demonstrates that the animal has survived
in nature as they grow larger each year (horns are permanent while antlers are shed annually). On the horn are engraved 13 lines.
This could refer to the lunar calendar of 13 months or perhaps it symbolizes 13 years, a typical age for the onset of puberty which is
when young people may have been brought to the location of this sculpture for an initiation ceremony.
This piece is no longer “in situ,” meaning its original location. It’s been moved into a museum where it is displayed in a fashion
contrary to the wishes of the artist (who was very likely a woman as men would have had nothing to do with the fertility objects). It
now hangs on a wall looking the viewer in the face. This is not how it was intended to be seen. Slide 94 shows how it looked when
discovered. This display radically alters the perception of the sculpture. It was not meant to be viewed as it hangs on a wall
looking us in the eye.
These fertility figures were most likely sculpted by women for use by women. Men would have had nothing to do with these at all.
92. 92
Terminology
• A cromlech is a circular structure
made of stone and used for
religious purposes.
There are only two cromlechs in the world and both are in England.
Stonehenge is the more famous of the two.
94. 94
Stonehenge estimated age 2,500-7,000 BC
Stonehenge is the best known cromlech in the world. A cromlech is a circular structure made of stone used for religious purposes.
We don’t know for sure exactly when it was built, or who built it, or how it was used. It’s an example of megalithic (big stone)
construction utilizing the post and lintel technique.
There are many stories and legends surrounding Stonehenge but only one astrological association can be documented. At sunrise
on the Summer Solstice, the sun rises directly over the Heelstone, the upright stone set apart from the circle. This was obviously no
accident as an earlier stone that was apparently too short was discarded and lies to this day on the ground. The Heelstone can be
seen as it appears when looking out from the center of the circle in Slide 99. Also visible is the discarded stone partially sunken
into the Earth. The current Heelstone is actually the second one erected. The first proved to be too short and was cast aside and a
taller one installed.
The Heelstone got its name from a Middle Ages story that a priest saw Satan building Stone Henge and ordered him to stop. Satan
threw the stone at the priest but God protected him and the rock bounced off his heel landing upright where it still stands. It’s been
called the Heelstone ever since. Fortunately the stone didn’t strike the priest in the groin or it might have a totally different name.
Look carefully at the stones in Slide 100 to see some of copious amounts of graffiti that have been scratched into the stone by
vandals causing the site to be accessible only by special permission. This slide also illustrates the post and lintel construction
techniques where two uprights posts are crossed at the top by a third unit.
Recent investigations have uncovered a large, temporary settlement nearby and evidence of a huge and grandiose feast occurring
here. This may suggest that Stonehenge served as a gathering place for members of different tribes or groups to meet for the
purpose of betrothals. We think that cultures would meet so that young people could find marriage partners outside their own
community and that may have happened here. It’s also possible that the big party was part of a fertility celebration, and the
newlyweds may have consummated their marriages before leaving as an offering to the gods or just for good luck.
96. 96
The woman in the photo is the instructor’s wife,
Sherri. Yes, she has a lot of hair. She also has a
Ph.D. in Classical History and after a number of
years in higher education, including holding
positions as a history professor and an administrator,
she sought a career change and went to law school.
She is now an attorney.
None of this has anything to do with art history but
students in the classroom always ask about my wife
so I thought you might also be wondering.
97. 97
Mesopotamia
What does this Greek word mean?
Land between the rivers.
Which rivers?
The Tigris and the Euphrates
Where is this on a modern map?
Iraq, Syria and a bit of Southern Turkey
98. 98
Mesopotamia (land
between the rivers) is
located between the
Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers in the modern
country of Iraq and
some of western Iran.
Mesopotamia was a
harsh land and its
history is one of
violence and warfare
as one culture replaced
another only to be
overthrown by yet
another.
Mesopotamian art
includes architecture in
the form of temples
(called ziggurats),
sculpture (both relief
and free-standing) as
well as jewelry and
other crafts.
99. 99
Terminology
• A ziggurat is a Mesopotamian temple.
• It is based on the mastaba form of stacking
levels of structures with inward-slanting walls.
100. 100
Temple of Urnamu at Ur c. 4500 BC
A Mesopotamian temple structure, called a ziggurat, was symbolic of the class structure of the society (Slide 106). The king would
be permitted to climb to the very top of the temple, while the peasants would be kept standing on the ground at the base. The middle
levels would have been accessible to people of higher status than the peasants, but lower than the king. In other words, your rank
within the culture determined how high you could go on the structure.
Height is always associated with status. Slide 107 shows the long staircase that led to the top of the temple structure. Many ancient
temples (from various cultures) feature a long flight of stairs to make the visitor weary and more receptive to religious inspiration.
This is an example of how architecture can manipulate us.
Slide 108 shows an artist’s conception of what the temple looked like when it was new.
Slide 109 is an aerial view illustrating that the temple was the center of a complex of buildings.
105. 105
Lilith, Babylonian Goddess of Death c. 2200 BC
Mesopotamian deities are always depicted wearing the
hats with swirls. The more swirls, the more powerful
the deity. Four swirls is maximum as seen at right.
Lilith stands upon lions and is flanked by owls. Both
animals are hunters who kill in the dark, being nocturnal.
Since night is sinister and death is often feared to be
coming for us in the dark, such animals would naturally
be associated with death and can symbolize the concept.
Lilith’s connections with the spirit world is evidenced by
her being part bird with wings and taloned feet.
She holds measuring ropes, an ancient form of
bookkeeping. What she is recording is the quality of
one’s life for she is the final judge, decided Heaven or
Hell for the recently deceased.
This panel is made from terra-cotta, or fired clay.
106. 106
Law Code of Hammurabi c.1760 BC
A Mesopotamian artifact that conveys royal and divine messages is The Law Code of
Hammurabi. This stele (an elongated commemorative marker often displaying
engraved text or images) represents an advanced notion of law and justice. We take
for granted that we know the laws of the land or can easily find out but ruling
monarchs can often be capricious in creating and enforcing laws. Sometimes the
subjects are unaware that they are breaking a law until they are arrested. But in
ancient Babylonia, the people could review the laws governing them by simply
consulting The Law Code of Hammurabi.
The stele is engraved with text, detailing some 282 laws. At the top of the stele is
seen a relief sculpture featuring King Hammurabi in conference with the sun god,
Shamash. The viewer knows the seated figure is a god because he wears the hat with
multiple swirls similar to the one seen in the depiction of Lilith and a clue to the
god’s specific identity can be seen in the waves of heat emanating from his shoulders.
The god gives the law to the king who in turn passes it on to the people. This is a
great system… for the king. Any unpopular laws are simply blamed on the god.
The text is quite specific, giving great detail to the ordinances. Law number 196 may
sound familiar. ”If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.”
This is the “eye for an eye” many people recognize from the Christian Bible. Many
of the laws engraved on the stele are rather entertaining. Consider law number 132:
“If the ‘finger is pointed’ at a man's wife about another man, but she is not caught
sleeping with the other man, she shall jump into the river for her husband.” We can
only speculate as to the purpose for having the wife jump into the river.
Some books mistakenly identify this stele as the first or only such artifact. That is not
correct. There are others, and some predate this one. But this is the best of the lot
and so it is pictured in the books most often.
107. 107
Detail of the relief sculpture on The Law
Code of Hammurabi. The king is seen on the
left and the seated sun god (note the hat)
dictates the laws to him. Kings wore the
close-fitting round caps seen on Hammurabi.
Mesopotamian cultures were fond of
recording laws and history. The following
slides illustrate some examples.
108. 108
Assyrian Lion Hunting Scene c. 2850 BC
The Asiatic lion was a slightly
smaller cousin to the African
lion and was finally driven to
extinction around 1850. In
ancient Mesopotamia kings and
other assorted royals would
hunt the lions. To demonstrate
their strength and bravery they
had relief sculpture created
showing them overcoming the
beasts..
109. 109
This sculpted panel
reveals that the hunt was
rigged, with the lions
being released from
captivity for the hunters’
convenience. This raises
many possibilities such as
the lions being drugged, or
declawed making them
less dangerous to the
hunters. It is somewhat
surprising that this image
was created since the
purpose of this art was to
celebrate the king’s
prowess and it certainly
calls the accomplishment
of the killing into
question.
111. 111
Even the king would want himself portrayed
as defeating the “king of the jungle” to
impress his subjects. It’s up to the individual
to decide the likelihood that the king ever
really dismounted his chariot and took on
wounded lions with nothing more than a big
knife.
How do you know we are seeing the king?
112. 112
Dying Lioness
There are basically two options when depicting an enemy in art. One can ridicule the opponent, making him appear inept and
foolish or one can celebrate the enemy and highlight his skill and bravery. We can call these conflicting techniques “the worthless
and weak” or “the worthy opponent.”
Both styles have been used at various times and places by different cultures. In The Dying Lioness the animal is mortally wounded,
paralyzed by the arrows that have struck her. Yet she refuses to give up, and continues to drag herself forward, towards her
tormentors with the intention of killing them before she herself dies. This determination in battle is the heart of the warrior spirit
and a warrior culture would respect and admire such an adversary. Indeed, the lioness is depicted as proud and defiant even in
death. This is why the kings wanted to be shown killing lions. Where is the glory in a depiction of the king stomping an aardvark
to death?
