Research paper ISLAMOPHOBIA AND MEDIA STUDIES SINCE 9/11

1 SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS OF MOVIE (RESEARCH PAPER)
Islamophobia and the Media Studies:
The portrayal of Islam since 9/11
Semiotic analysis of a movie
Huma hafeez & Humera Masood
Maam Ansa Hameed

Table of contents
Unit Title
Acknowledgment
Dedication
Abstract
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Statement of problem
1.3 Delimitation
1.4 Significance of Study
1.5 Objectives
1.6 Research Questions
Chapter 2
2.1 Literature Review
2.2 Marxist theory
2.3 Ideology and Images
2.4 Semiotics
Chapter 3

3.1 Approach
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Variables
3.4 Sample
3.5 Data Analysis
Chapter 4
4.1 Semiotic Analysis
4.2 Denotation and connotation
4.3 Notion of Myth
4.4 Privation of History
4.5 Inoculation
4.6 Identification of the other with Self
4.7 The statement of Fact
Suggestions
Conclusion
Appendix
References
Acknowledgement:

I would like to give special thanks to all those people with the help of whom the completion of
this project have become possible. Thank you to Doctor Ansa Hameed for her constant support
and supervision and special thanks to my loveliest friend Humaira Masood who helped me till
the end of this project.

I would like to dedicate my paper to my beloved parents who have always
been a source of encouragement for me.
Abstract:
The media plays an important role in shaping the societies opinions about topical issues. Most
human beings depend upon either the print media or electronic media as their sources for
information. The advent of internet since the 1990s has popularized certain key issues which
people can access in a one click. Since it is a combination of both audio and visual material it
undercover every widespread matter that is going on in the world. The most effective

documentation of such immediacy is that of the impact of September 11 attacks in the USA in
2001. The aftermath of media‟s impact still resonates throughout the world. This paper aims to
explore the impact of the media on this newly derived concept of Islamophobia. It includes the
semiotic analysis of a movie based on Iranian Revolution and hostage crisis occurred in the year
1979. This paper discusses the concept of Islamophobia and anti-Islamism and its deep roots in
history. The conclusion reached is that instead of the media acting as a mediator between
Western society and global Muslim world by creating an atmosphere of each understanding the
other, it acted negatively against Islam, the world fastest growing religion.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to ascertain the fact that media is an officious factor in constructing
biased opinions among people. Information, disinformation and influence are closely connected
and may in combination, lead to a construction of one‟s world and consequently to a formation
of one‟s attitudes. Therefore media is sometimes regarded as a “fourth estate” in democratic
states (cf Jager and Link 1995; Schultz 1998). Most people are unaware of the ways they are
being educated and positioned by the media because their pedagogies tend to be “invisible and

absorbed unconsciously” (Kellner and Share, 2007, p.4). Therefore it is important to analyze the
role of media in reproducing certain stereotypes especially in terms of “racism, ethnocentrism
and other forms of prejudices” (Keller and Share, 2005). Hence from a social justice perspective
it is imperative to learn about how media educates about otherness, and how this enters into our
understanding of the world.
In the light of these statements the key focus of this research is to highlight the negative
typecasts against Muslims by media. Recent portrayals of Muslims provide a compelling
contemporary cultural site demanding our attention, for the media plays a decisive role in
producing understanding of what Muslims are like (Johnny and Sharrif 2007; Kincheloe &
Steinberg, 2004; Rizvi, 2005; Said, 1997; Steinberg, 2007). Unfortunately recent researches have
revealed that media has largely depicted a homogenous image of Islam, constructing it as foreign
or alien to the normalized ideas of Western society (Johny and Sharrif, 2007). By the help of
critical Media Studies it is easy to deconstruct and dismantle the representation of Muslims,
which in recent years has taken a shape of a full-fledged Western Ideology in the name of
Islamophobia (Kellner and Share 2007).
Islamophobia is defined as the fear or dread of Muslims and their religion Islam. The
term has been recently coined but it has its deep roots in history. Since the advent of Islam in
622, Europe‟s awareness of Muslims has been overwhelmingly negative. Hence it became a need
of time for European powers to portray Islam and Muslims in the worst possible light in order to
prevent conversions. Under such abhorrence Muslims have been portrayed as barbaric, ignorant,
closed-minded, semi-citizens, maddened terrorists or intolerant religious zealots. Micheal Curtis
in his book Orientalism and Islam states on the same issue of Europeans view of Islam.

According to Curtis, Europeans view on the Eastern social and political system was commingled
with their conception of the Islamic religion, though their knowledge of Islam was imperfect.
The criticism of Islam by Christians started soon after its advent starting with St John of
Damascus in the late seventeenth century who wrote of “the false prophet” Mohammad (Curtis,
2007, p 31). The concept of Other was created by Christian theologians for them, the “Other”
was infidel, the Muslim. Despite changing images of Islam, it was generally regarded as
“theologically false, and as the basis of a hostile, different and dangerous civilizations” (Curtis,
2007, p 31). This led to theological dispute among the theologians and rulers of Orthodox and
Byzantine empires which continue seeing Islam as a threat. The Christians received another
challenging situation when Ottoman Empire advance into Europe,and Turkey became equated
with Islam in the seventeenth century. Islamic countries were seen as a military, political and
religious threat (Curtis, 2007, p 32). One such example is quoted by John Milton in his poem
Paradise Lost. Milton has compared, “the Ottoman ruler anxious to conquer Christendom with
Satan”. He wrote of Satan sitting exalted, “high on a throne, of royal state, which far outshone
the wealth of Ormus (in the Persian Gulf) and India, and of the gorgeous East with riches hand
showering on her Kings barbaric pearl and gold” (Curtis, 2007, p 32). Such intimidating remarks
about Muslims and Islam went under critical discussions, in which various scholars argued that
since previous ages commentary on Islam was based on beliefs that, Islam gives credibility to
despotism. Moreover they were critical of those governments who give rise to despotism and
were inclined to an Islamic mission to conquer the world. Commentary of this kind is still
relevant in contemporary world only their mode of expression has changed.
In Modern contemporary world the fear of Muslims has its own idiosyncratic features
connecting it with the more recent experiences of colonialism, decolonization, immigration and

racism. Muhammad, R.Salama, in his book Islam, Orientalism and Intellectual History, has
discussed the same issue of Muslim hatred in contemporary world. According to Salama in
America today a ruthless war on Islam is taking place. Account of which is evident in the US
presidential campaign in which the then presidential candidate Obama distributed brochures
across the USA just to let Americans know that he is not Muslim while his opponent John
McCain, emphasized the Judeo- Christian nature of his campaign (p 3). Post 9/11 political
environment has reopened the old debate on Islam and the West and has given rise to questions
that are related to the position of Islam in relationship to modernity and European view of the
world.In a Post-September 11 political world, global research has viewed Islam in terms of
violence and terrorism. The use of terms like Islamdom, Islamism, political Islam and rise of new
ummah have been viewed as phenomena facing “western modernity”. Saba Mahmud an
Egyptian anthropologist in her work on Islamic revival and feminism in Egypt draws attention to
anti-Islamic syndrome she argues that “Islamism frames its object as an eruption of religion
outside the supposedly normal domain of private worship and thus as a historical anomaly
requires explanation if not rectification”(Salama, 2011, p 11). She further argues that there is a
powerful support “to strengthen the sense that there is a secular liberal inquisition before which
Islam must be made to confess”. Such studies come as a reaction to current political thought
about Islam in a “new world order”. In this world the word global is discursively used under
political domains which itself is inextricably linked with the secular modernity of European
Enlightenment (Salama, 2011, p12). Hence it would not be wrong to say that there is a strong
propaganda working under all issues regarding anti Islamisation which control every medium
through which they can have a direct access to the general public, including media as well.

In his introduction to the revised edition of Covering Islam (1997); Said writes that since
the first appearance of the book fifteen years earlier, Muslims and Islam has been under intense
focus of Western Media, characterized by stereotyping and extreme hostility. “Indeed, Islam‟s
role in hijacking and terrorism, descriptions of the ways in which overtly Muslim countries like
Iran threaten „us‟ and our way of life, and speculations of latest conspiracy to blow up buildings
[…] A corpse of „experts‟ on the Islamic world has grown to prominence, and during a crisis
they are brought out to pontificate on formulaic ideas about Islam on news programs or talk
shows”. (Said, 117, p11)
According to Said there has been a revival of misrepresentation of non-white people and
this comes to an existence when the religion of every cultural group is misjudged. Said says that
the level of anti-Islamism in media has gain its heights where by Muslims are portrayed in every
Hollywood movie as villains, terrorists, and violent barbarians, obsessed with women, sex and
money. He cites the example of Hollywood movies Delta Force (1985) which began this
tradition (Said, 1997/2002, p589)
This paper is one such critical reading it analyzes images of Muslims in movies produced
by Western Media. Focus of this research is on the visual images and language usein moviesthat
creates false images. These movies are shown worldwide and have international rating hence it is
important to scrutinize such movies as they are responsible for spreading race hate among
masses.
1.2: Statement of Problem:

It is to examine portrayal of Muslims in Hollywood movies in a manner that creates personal
hate and prejudice in the heart and mind of international viewers. The consequence of which is
faced by those Muslim communities who are living within United States and Europe.
1.3: Delimitation
For this research papera Hollywood movie Argo has been selected to study the role of media in
spreading negative consciousness against Muslims.
1.4: Significance of Study
This research will undercover the ideology created by media against Islam. It is important to
note that this misrepresentation has adverse effects on those Muslim minorities who are living in
West. Hence it is a need of time to unhook Western ideologies and their framework and show
people other side of the story.The importance of a spoken word and use of visual aids cannot be
denied in constructing the thinking processes, social, economic and political ideologies. This
research has highlighted the factor as how the movies propagate these ideologies.
1.5: Objectives:
This research paper has following objective:
To take into account various details of images and dialogues to extract the intended
impact.
To highlight the ideology signified through various scenes of the movie.

1.6: Research Questions
Can media be held responsible for shaping public opinions?
How had the media treated Islam since 9/11?
What impact Western media have on rest of the world?
Can Western media be held responsible for propagating Islamophobia?
2.1.Literature Review
Sajid (2005, p9) defines Islamophobia that, “Islamophobia is the fear and/or hatred of Islam,
Muslims or Islamic culture. Islamophobia can be characterized by the belief that all or most
Muslims are religious fanatics, have violent tendencies towards non-Muslims, reject as
directly opposed to Islam such concepts as equality, tolerance and democracy. Islamophobia
is a new form of racism whereby Muslims, an ethno-religious group, not a race, are
nevertheless, constructed as a race. A set of negative assumptions are made of the entire
group to the detriment of members of that group. During the 1990s many sociologists and
cultural analysts observed a shift in racist ideas from one based on skin color to one based on
notions of cultural superiority and otherness.”
According to Sajid (2005, p9), Islamophobia is a root word which is derived from
Xenophobia and is concerned with culturalism and identity politics. Initially the word
referred to inhumane conditions suffered by Muslim immigrants to the West, but recently this
word has broadened itself in reference to ostracism suffered by Muslims globally.

It is this research‟s hypothesis that media is mainly responsible for propagating
Islamophobia. In order to view this according to theories it needs an application of matrix of
theories. A brief discussion of these theories is given below.
2.2. Marxist Theory
According to Fourie (2001, P121) the political economy is an umbrella term for all those theories
and analytical approaches which have the purpose of understanding how economic and political
relationships, interests and affiliations determine the functioning of social institutions (including
the media as a social institution), and the impact or lack of impact of these relationships an social
transformation and development. In terms Marxist theory, it is believed that all means of
production, including media production determines the nature of a society and that the economy
is the best of all social structures, including institutions and ideas. (Fourie, 2001, p122)
According to this theory those people who are at higher strata of society have the
authority to control the means of production, their sole purpose is to make profit out of it without
taking into consideringthe worst possible effects. In addition, Fourie writes that the economic
and political control of the media determines the content and thus the ideological power of the
media.
“By ideological power we mean the power (and means) to form, direct and influence the
thinking of people. This power is mainly vested in those who own the media and who have the
financial means to own and manage the media” (Fourie, 2001, p122).
The global media trends seems to be one that is dominated by political agendas as well as
profit making. This follows in the footsteps of trends set by First World Western countries where

profit motives direct the business, where the media is controlled by a small group of
entrepreneurs whose primary focus lies in generating capitals (Lewis, 2005).
The small elite capitalist groups worldwide exercise this power in carefully selecting the
footage and information they wanted the masses to consume (Lewis, 2005). According to Fourie
(2001, p123), the concept of power is central to the critical power economy. Thompson (as cited
in Fourie, 2001, p123) distinguishes between four types of power: economic, political, coercive
and symbolic. The latter that is symbolic is the real and potential power vested in all cultural
institutions such as the church, education and media. These institutions possess the power to
influence people‟s thinking and behavior. They produce forms of expressions that guide people
to understand and think about the world in certain ways. According to Fourie (2001, p136) the
underlying assumption that is made in terms of Marxist capitalist theory, is that economic
ownership leads to the control of content that promotes the interest of the ruling class at the
expense of masses.
2.3. Ideology and Images
Mikolaj Sobocinski (n.d) gives a detailed account of how images present ideologies in his thesis
‘Ideology in Images – WeareBeingFramed (Analysis of Press Photography, Film Posters and
WW2 Propaganda Posters). He says that images are as much filled with meaning as words since
both of them can be perceived just like language and work as a sign for communicating
(Sobocinski, n.d: 22). A sign is divided into signifier and signified which leads to multiple levels
of interpretations. A single sign may contain a number of varying meanings that are culture
specific. It depends on the choice of the reader the signified meaning they want to extract from

the image. A picture can be talked of presenting meaning in a more precise manner because of
the multiple elements (signs) involved in its constriction.
Claude Levi-Strauss, who was the follower of Saussure, supported the concept of binary
oppositions which means that signs can be defined in relation to other signs in their system. He
further said that we understand and conceptualise things in their opposing categories. Every
culture has its own code of values on the basis of which the individuals develop their perception
of the world. This is the reason that interpretation of a message differs among the members
belonging to different cultures (Sobocinski, n.d: 22). Umberto Eco introduced a new concept of
sub-cultural codes such as national, traditional, hegemonic, due to which members of the same
society might interpret similar information through different set of codes. This theory of sub-
cultural codes forms the basis for interpreting content with implicit ideology at its basis
(Sobocinski, n.d: 23-4).
Sobocinski (n.d) mentions that Stuart Hall talks about the reflective or mimetic approach
when meaning is inherent within the object, person, idea, event etc. The fundamental concept of
this approach was that pictures are reflection of the world. Barthes challenged this reasoning and
stated that meaning is supplied by the reader which is the constructivist approach. As Hall (n.d)
exclaims that things themselves do not contain any meanings rather it is the individual members
who use representational system of signs and codes to build meaning around things. This gradual
process of manipulating meaning establishes a thought in a natural way and it becomes a part of
our cognitive system. This all finally takes the form of a myth which becomes a kind of obstacle
in our understanding as by then we have been „framed‟ in a particular thought pattern. This is
how ideology and mythology play upon our mind in an invisible way (Sobocinski, n.d: 27).

Cultural messages are usually ideologies, says Althusser, which explain how things work
in the world around us. It relates to the shared knowledge among individuals of the society which
exists about their sheared beliefs. An image may succeed in creating it intended meaning to the
reader whose understanding is majorly formed by the myths and ideologies (Sobocinski, n.d: 28).
Sobocinski (n.d) mentions Althusser (n.d) who believes that we always live with some
ideology making choices between the various set of beliefs available to us. It is an inescapable
phenomenon whether we choose to belong to the dominant, negotiated, or opposing ideology,
but it is a significant display of cognitive abilities (Sobocinski, n.d: 29).
After this, Sobocinski (n.d) shifts the focus on the advertisements produced in the media
and talks how they manipulate the information and represent certain ideas as they would fix with
the ideologies of the audiences and attract them.
2.4. Semiotics
Semiotics is one such term that was initiated by Charles Sanders Peirce which developed as
influenced from Saussure‟s concept of sign (Das, 2010: 117). There are some basic conventions
through which the signs convey meaning. Peirce divides signs into three distinct categories
named as iconic, indexical, and symbolic. The iconic sign is the one which can be observed as
actually resembling what it signifies (William, n.d: para 4). There is true imitation of the shared
characteristics between the sign and its signified (Chandler, n.d). The example can be taken of
the similarity between the portrait and the person who is depicted in the picture, onomatopoeia,
metaphors, dubbed film sound tracks etc.The indexical sign is indicator of the signified by virtue
of some relation based on the cause and effect factor (Das, 2010: 117). Thus, the link between
the sign and the signified is not arbitrary; rather there is a logical connection (Chandler, n.d).

Smoke is an indicator of fire, a finger pointing in some particular direction, pulse rate etc. are the
examples where signs hint to something else of which they are the cause or effect.The relation of
a symbolic with its signified is based on social and conventional basis and it has to be learnt
since it does not come in naturally. For example, the gesture of shaking hands is taken as a
symbol of meeting or parting in different cultures, a red traffic signal usually indicates „stop‟
(Das, 2010: 118).
Daniel Chandler‟s (n.d) Semiotics for Beginners is a complete account of all the concepts
relevant to semiotics including the major ideas proposed by the semioticians. One of the most
significant phenomena that are studied in detail in semiotics is that of denotation and
connotation. These two terms explain the relationship between the signifier and the signified and
there are denotative signifieds as well as the connotative signifieds (Chandler, n.d: para 1).
Denotation is usually referred to as the literal or dictionary meaning, obvious or common
meaning of a thing/sign. Chandler mentions of Erwin Panofsky (1970) who is an art historian
states that denotative meaning of an image can be interpreted by any individual form any culture
at any time (p.51-3). Connotation is associated to socio-cultural and personal interpretation
which depends on the age, class, gender, ethnicity and other such factors (Chandler, n.d: para 3).
Barthes wrote ‘The Photography Message’ (1961) and ‘The Rhetoric of the Image’
(1964) where he commented that photographs can be analysed to extract the denotative and
connotative meaning. This idea was furthered by Fiske (1982) who exclaimed that denotation
involves the things that are photographed while connotation refers to the dimension of how it is
done (p. 91). The denotational meaning is better agreed upon by the members belonging to same
culture whereas interpretation of connotations is aided by the cultural codes to which the

individual can access (Chandler, n.d: para 6). By using a different signifier, the connotational
meaning can be changed altogether which can be understood as using similar kind of terms for
differently intended interpretations such as „strikes‟ vs. „disputes‟ or „management offer‟ vs.
„union demands‟ (Chandler, n.d: para 9).

METHODOLOGY
3.1. Approach
This approach employs Semiotic Analysis under the broad field of Critical Discourse
Analysis. Semiotics in the contemporary era is being studied in relation to the medium or
genre, which means that the contemporary semioticians are not just merely concerned with
the process of communication, but how meanings are made and how reality is constructed
and maintained. (Chandler, 2009 ). John Sturrock defined semiotics as a study concerned
with the meanings of signs (1986).Semiotics is used in the textual analysis and Chandler
defines texts as any verbal, nonverbal or both mediums (2009). The word medium in the
current scenario is being used for broad categories such as speech, writing, print, television,
radio, magazines, books, photographs, films and records (Chandler, 2009).
3.2. Research Design
This study is qualitative in nature. Qualitative approaches are processes that engage the
set of extensive data in order to get insights into processes of interest also data analysis includes
the coding of the data and production of a verbal synthesis(Gay, 2005). The underlying principle
for the use of qualitative inquiry is the research based belief that the action is significantly
influenced by the setting in which it occurs (Gay, 2005)

3.3. Variables
In the present study, the theoretical framework presented by Roland Barthes has been
used for the data analysis. This theory by Barthes is twofold that discusses:
Denotation and Connotation:Barthes defines denotation as the representation of simple reality,
and connotation as the ideas and values which are represented through that simple reality and the
way in which they are represented and expressed (Leeuwen, 2005).
The notion of myth is a key concept in Barthes works; he defines myths as a system of
communication, which is a message and is not explained „by the object of its message, but by the
way in which it utters this message‟ (Barthes, 1998). Myths are termed as the dominant
hegemonic connotations which are found to be associated with the material and social
phenomena (Lacey, 1998).
Barthes was of the opinion that ordinary readers digested these myths without any
resistance because „the signifier and the signified have, in his eyes, a natural relationship‟
(Strinati, 2004).
Barthes makes reference to the tools which help myths in furthering theiraims and
agendas which are as follows:
The inoculation: Inoculation is a form through which bigger evil is hidden by acknowledging
the small evil.

The privation of history: Barthes is of the opinion that privation of history removes every trace
of history from the object. Hence people are made to believe in the constructed reality which is
devoid of its history.
Identification of the other with the self: Myths shun out differences and try to look up for ways
to transform differences in to sameness. If something is unique in nature and is beyond the scope
of assimilation myth makers ensure to detach all seriousness from it, hence educing it merely to
the level of a spectacle. Reality is presented in a generalized form which further pushes the myth
maker away from reality.Reality is shown in a generalized setting. it is devoid of any seriousness
only those things are taken into lime light which are helpful in creating the intended image, other
things are either ignored or forgotten.
The statement of fact: Barthes is of the view that human speech can be of two types, active or
reflexive. Active language is based in reality, while reflexive language is detached from reality
and is more generalized in nature. ( Kudryashow, 2010).
3.4. Sample
A movie has been selected from post-9/11 productions. Best Picture award winning
movie, Argo directed by Ben Affleck with its present rating 7.9/10 from 199,189 viewers 7.5/10.
Argo is based on the real life events in which a mission was conducted by CIA official in Iran to
rescue Americans hostages from Iranian custody during the 1979 hostage crisis. The movie
establishes Islamophobic elements among the recipients. In this movie specific elements have
been encoded with the help of linguistic and visual images which manipulates the mind of
general public by showing only half of the truth. Hence it is highly important to show the users

how they are being manipulated by the ideologies through the use of discourse and images in
electronic media.
3.5. Data Analysis
The data analysis will be done with the help of the model presented by Barthes. At the
first level, specific scenes from each movie would be extracted which are showing negative
images of the Muslims. An important emphasis would be laid on the use of visual images and
dialogues uttered by the characters. Special analysis would be laid on imagery, setting, plot,
characters and symbols with the help of tools mentioned above. At the second level, stress would
be given on over all contexts that are historical, political and cultural which are contributing to
promote the overall ideology. At the third level, an overall commentary would be made on
freedom of expression and religious tolerance which involve documentaries and movie reviews.
4.0. Findings
4.1. Semiotic Analysis of a Movie

The movie chosen for Semiotic analysis using Barthe tools is Argo. The movie is based
on true events that took place in 1979 a year of Iranian revolution; when an angry mob of Iranian
students attack American Embassy and took 52 Americans as a hostage for 444 days. Six
hostages tried to escape the situation and took refuge in Canadian ambassador‟s home. A secret
operation was conducted by a CIA officer who posed as a producer of a non-existing movie and
sneaked in Iranian territory to rescue the hostages from the shackles of deadly Iranians.
Moreover there is a short history of Iran at the beginning of a movie which talks about traditional
monarchy of Shah Pahlavi‟s dynasty and its impact on Iran as a whole. It also talks about Shah‟s
ruthless era of torture and his exile by a Shia cleric Ayatollah Khomeini. In a movie there are
three signifiers a CIA agent, American hostages and an angry mob of Iranian people.
4.2. Denotation and Connotation:
On a surface level it has been shown that people of Iran want an Islamic revolution which
will completely sweep all western ideologies from their country. There are group of Islamist
students and militants who are waiting outside American embassy demanding the return of Shah
who recently has gone to America for his cancer treatment, after being exiled by his people. An
angry mob in a racket is chanting slogans in Farsi which is not understandable by viewers and
deliberately not translated1
, on the other hand there are people holding playcards and poster of
Ayatollah Khomieni. A man is standing on a roof top holding American flag which is being set
on fire2
. These protesters suddenly break into the Embassy office and make most of the
Americans captives. Some of the men are holding guns, among them there are some women who
1
Appendix (Argo, 6m: 65s)
2
Appendix (Argo, 2m: 48s).

are wearing black veils. Those Americans who escape went outside the Embassy
unnoticed3
.They take refuge in Canadian Ambassador‟s house from where they are evacuated by
a CIA officer. On a connotative level the values and ideas these signifiers express are as follows:
A CIA officer reflects American imperialist power and its carefully constructed
ideologies which have put every third world country in a state of chaos and confusion. America
being a core creator of all hegemonic groups in the whole world acts as a silent predator in a
movie. From the distribution of power to economic crisis America has played a vital role in
Iranian revolution. Unfortunately its role in a movie has been portrayed in a positive light by
giving more focus to the American hostages who represents civilized American citizens with
rational qualities. On the other hand people of Iran signifies; ruthlessness, destruction,
devastation, criminality and inhumanity4
which is prevalent in an initial scene where a man with
a knife is stabbing a stuffed statue. His actions generalize the whole Iranians as strong minded,
aggressive Nation ready to take action without any second thought 5
.
4.3. Notion of Myth:
In the mythological order of signification the aforementioned signs reflect an important
racist and Islamophobic stereotypes about Iranian revolution which in reality had the deeper
meaning for the Muslims living in Iran6
. The revolution was a mass popular uprising against the
3
Appendix (Argo 10m: 34s).
4
Appendix (Argo,5m:04s).
5
Appendix (Argo, 3:00).
6
Appendix (Argo,1m:52s)

megalomaniac Shah who was backed by American forces. During his reign he tried to westernize
Iran and spent almost half of his country‟s economy on buying American weaponry with an idea
of making his military a resilient one. He also established a secret police Savak trained by CIA
special agents. The Savak police used to arrest innocent people, who were regarded as agents of
Khomeini working against Shah. On the other hand the Islamists, who ultimately took control
over Iran, after Shah went to exile, were on the right wing of the revolution which was clearly
ignored by the movie makers. Instead they treat every Iranian as a religious fanatic screaming in
an un translated Farsi and creating havoc to their own country.
4.4. Privation of history:
The director and producer Ben Affleck has completely ignored the history and the real
cause behind the revolution. The opening sequence of the movie has used story-board like
animation which explains how a CIA-backed coup overthrew a democratically elected leader,
Mohammed Mossadegh, in 1953 and appointed Shah Reza Pahlavi as a new king7
.This sequel
has completely ignored the background story that raised people of Iran to such an extent that
they end up in a revolution. The Shah ruled Iran from September 1941 to February 1979. He
was considered to be a regal, autocratic and over ambitious ruler. The Islamic Revolution
toppled the Shah and brought Ayatollah on top of the line. It was the first religious revolution
in the history which was being televised. For the first time the world saw power of political
Islam to change the societies. The Shah became Shah because of his father Reza khan the first
Pahlavi Shah. During World War II Iran was occupied by the Allied powers Britain and the
Soviet Union. Reza Khan soon abdicated his powers and left Iran. On 16th
of September 1941
7

the crown prince entered Iran and took oath to rule Iran as a constitutional monarch. His
dominance was challenged by a strong nationalist Dr Mossadegh. He raised the issue of Iran‟s
oil, which was being used by Anglo Iranian British Oil Company in exchange of royalties. In
Anglo Iranian company British government hold a major share. By the 1950‟s nearly 10% of
the world‟s oil came through Anglo Iranian oil refineries. Mossadegh raised the issue of
nationalizing oil refineries. A bill nationalizing Oil Company was immediately passed. In 1953
the British and U.S. spy agencies i.e. CIA and MI6 planned a military operation by the name of
Operation Ajax which deposed Mossadegh and helped Shah to regain his power (BBC
documentary). The history shows that it was a total foreign invasion in Iranian territory that
rose people to safeguard their rights. The revolution in this sense had a right meaning in it
which has been portrayed unjustly in the movie.
4.5. Inoculation:
Inoculation is a technique that is used to highlight only darker aspects of any issue or event. It
focuses more on minor evils of society and conceals the truth behind them by hiding bigger evils.
Ben Affleck has also used this technique against Iran .With the help of images8
he has tried to
draw an idea that defines Iranian nation that has wronged them in making decision to create an
Islamic Revolution. A scene where the Muslim masses outside the embassy are depicted in
mostly wide shots as an undifferentiated, unintelligible crowd, the moment a camera goes inside
8
Appendix (Argo,4m:05s)

the embassy and meet American characters, it get close-ups, humanity, individualized characters
and dialogue one can understand. Throughout the film, Iran is depicted as a terrifying place with
barbed wires, where traitors are hung in public and menacing Muslim mobs lurk around every
corner, ready to confront the protagonists each time they venture outside 9
The film is particularly selective in using subtitles to humanize certain characters and not
others. A young female servant in the home of the Canadian ambassador where the American
characters take shelter is given a name and translated dialogue. When Americans speak Farsi,
their words are almost always translated10
The political chants and banners that might help us
understand the demands of the protestingcrowds are almost never translated.
More over in Iranian setting red and black color are quite prevalent. Women are wearing
black veils connoting mysteriousness and fear, and men are holding placards with red color in
them which refers to war, anger, and despair. Moreover red color brings images to the
foreground. It stimulates people to make hasty decisions which according to the film maker are a
big hamartia of Iranian people. By introducing red color in Iranian setting, film maker has tried
to create a phobic image in the mind of the recipient that there is a constant danger lurking
behind. Hence the viewer‟s get repellent to Iranian setting.
On the other hand when scene changes to American setting, a loud chanting voice of
protesters transforms into serene quietness. There are cards made by children wishing safe return
of hostages with yellow ribbons hanging on the wall. Yellow ribbons are used by the film maker
as an image that attracts the viewers and gives positive feeling. Yellow color is associated with
9
Appendix (Argo, 5:37)
10

joy, happiness, mental and intellectual energy which shows that American citizens possess all the
healthy qualities 11
.Hence all these things refer to the silent protest of American citizens against
Iranians and it depicts that in such a tense situation they are still behaving in a quite mature
manner.
4.6. Identification of the other with the self
In „Argo‟ Reality is presented in a generalized form which further pushes the myth maker
away from reality. To achieve this [pressure cooker situation], Argo also forgoes historical
accuracy, and should be taken as a dramatization of real events for pure entertainment value.
„Argo‟ isn‟t been a pure play rather the truth is that the hostage rescue it portrays wasn‟t very
eventful. There are three events that has pictured in Argo that in reality never happened.
Firstly, market clip12
that has been added by Ben Affleck is only to dramatize the hostage
crisis and to increase rating of his movie. Halfway through the film, the American group is out
and about in a local marketplace pretending to be a film crew. Here, a very tense scene takes
place, where their lives in the bazaar appear to be in peril. None of this actually happened, of
course.He just added this event to show behavior of common people in Iran. In other words it‟s
only the Ideological Campaign known as to be Islamophobia which is against Muslims to
examine the rise of anti-Muslim and anti-Arab sentiments in the West through production of
movie like „Argo‟.
11
12
Appendix (Argo, 1hr:10m)

Second event that has been injected tactfully inmovie13
When the group is finally exiting
Iran, they face a very jittery encounter with the boarding officials at the airport. It is also an
excellent scene that displays how the love of cinema knows no borders, yet it was another piece
that was completely invented to give misconception about Iranian army that lack common sense
and can be trapped easily by making false stories as well as to show their conservative approach
towards westernization or liberty.
Third scene14
,When the group is finally on the plane, and very close to tasting freedom,
they are chased by the Iranian military that is ready to shoot their aircraft down. As you may
have suspected from the formulaic nature of this rather annoying finale, it was also another
segment in the film that was entirely fabricated. In fact, Mark Lijek, one of the six actual people
rescued during the operation, had said“The truth is the immigration officers barely looked at us
and we were processed out in the regular way. We got on the flight to Zurich and then we were
taken to the US ambassador‟s residence in Berne. It was that straightforward15
.”
4.7. The Statement of fact:
Language is an important element through which ideas can be shaped. It is a power of
discourse that imprints certain ideologies in people‟s mind. The use of words in Argo has been
carefully constructed to give the intended meaning to its viewers. Initially we see that no
translation has been given to the Iranian people who are working in a revolution. This signifies
that the movie maker has deliberately broken the contact of Iranians from rest of the world, in
13
Appendix (Argo1hr:31min)
14
Appendix (Argo, 1hr:41s )
15
http://iranian.com/posts/view/post/8998

order to push back their just cause of having an Islamic State with no external threats. On the
other hand American hostages have been indorsed with good speaking skills. They are fortunate
creatures who can speak two languages at a time i.e. Farsi and English. Unlike Iranians they are
given special favors by the film maker, when they utter words in Farsi they are immediately
translated into English with subtitles. By applying this technique the filmmakers have turn the
table towards American hostages. This shows that the film maker has given voice to only
American cause marginalizing and completely ignoring the other group. More over Americans
dialogue and use of words have imperative power in them. They want to exert their authority by
using strong derogatory terms and abusive language. In a scene when the protagonist enters State
Department, there is a voice in the background; this voice is of the then American president
Jimmy Carter. In his speech he is saying that “Actions of Iran have shocked the civilized world.
They may not understand what their ordeal means to their countrymen. At this nation, their
nation is out raged and one cannot really know what it is like inside the prison that was once our
embassy” 16
The use of words in President‟s speech indicates that Iranians belong to an
uncivilized world and their cause has no rational meaning in it. They have broken all rules of law
and there manners in giving voice to their cause are quite rigorous. Moreover his words have
further put Iran at periphery by declaring Embassy as a prison a place with no exit.
Another scene which shows the use of speech is that of Iranian setting, where a group of
Iranians are having a public conference in which they are demanding Shah‟s return. Speech is
delivered by an Iranian woman in English she says that, “The US has failed to defend human
rights it does not only failed to defend them it has violated them for all nations. We demand
extradition of a man who for 47 years with the US support has killed month old babies in the
16

arms of their mothers” 17
Soon after this speech a radio speech by American journalist has been
given which states that the Iranian students have threatened the US that “If the Americans tried
military force to rescue the hostages the students will kill them all and blow up the embassy”
18
.In the above two statements there is a vast degree of contrast which shows Iranians under the
negative light and fulfills the desired objects In another instance when CIA officer Tony Mendez
went to the Hollywood director of science fiction movies John Chambers, and shares his views
about the fake movie, Chamber says that “the target audience would hate it” and the target
audience are “people with eyes”. Here he has indirectly referred to Iranian militants who would
later on act as a target audience but instead of having eyes they would be fooled by the CIA
officer and his group of hostages who will leave Iran under their noses as easily one can
imagine.. In a nut shell we can say that the film makers have very tactfully used the tool of
language in portraying their cause of national identity and secrecy of CIA agency in a positive
light.
Suggestions:
Isal (2001) writes that the media needs to be made more accountable for the messages it
disseminates. She raises a concern that the media are not always made accountable for what they
publish and that there are not enough means to restrain them from inciting prejudice and racial
stereotyping. Isla‟s report (2001:11) makes the following recommendations:
The government should make sure that the media in general is made more accountable
when discussing race issues. This means imposing sanctions and making sure that there is
17
18

a “code of conduct” respected by journalists when it comes to discussing race issues, in
particular regarding asylum seeker.
Independent monitoring projects and bodies should be set up to ensure that black and
minority ethnic groups have a place where they can report any offensive coverage.
There should be more minority ethnic group people to commissioning editor and
management posts.
In a 2002 lecture by Brian Whitaker on Islam and the British Press (in Richardson, 2004:71), he
suggested that in order to improve media coverage on Islam, the public should make the media
more responsible and accountable. Hence it is important to note that the role of spectators or
recipient is as important as it is in the case of production companies. Before reaching up to any
conclusion it is important to analyze things objectively.
Conclusion:
In an attempt to understand Islamophobia one needs to understand the fundamental role
that the media plays in society as a disseminator of information. In the above discussion a brief
overview on Islamophobia has been given which is a fear of Muslim and it has been linked to
Xenophobia where followers of Islam have fallen victim to threat, attack and insult simply
because of their religious inclination. In this view electronic media which is a source of
entertainment can be viewed objectively by the people because what they see is a mere reflection
of an illusionistic image far removed from reality, specially constructed to frame minds of
general masses.

References:
David, Lean, & Sam, Speigal. 1962. Lawrence of Arabia. Britain: Horizon Pictures.
Daniel, Norman. 1960. Islam And the West: Making of An Image. England: Edinburgh
University Press.
Grant, Heslov & Ben, Affleck. 2012. Argo. North America: Smokehouse Pictures.
Gardner, Rod, Karakasoglu, Yasemin, “Islamophobia in the Media A Response from
Multicultural Education”, Web. Retrieved on March 28, 2013.
Islamophobia: A Definition. 2004 Retrieved March 30, 2013 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.islamophobia-watch.com/Islamophobia-a-definition.
Karim, Karim H, “Islamic Peril: Media and Global Violence”, Montréal: Black Rose,
2003,
Web, Retrieved on March 28, 2013.
Marie, Lisa. 2009. Agent + Image: How the Television Image Destabilizes Identity in TV
Spy
Series.Massachusetts Institute of technology, Cambridge United States.
Malik, Maleiha. 2010. Anti-Muslim Prejudice. USA: Routedge.
Said, Edward. 1997. Covering Islam: How the Media and the experts determine how we
see the

rest of the world. USA: Vantage.
Suskind, Ron. 2006. The One Percent Doctrine: Deep Inside America’s Pursuit of Its
Enemies
Since 9/11. Washington DC: Simon Schuster.
APPENDIX
1 – Denotation and connotation (6m:65s )

2- 2:48
3- 10m:34s

4- (5m:04s)
5-(Argo, 3m:00s)

6- (1m:52s)

7-(Argo, 1m:05s)
8-(Argo,4:05)
9- (Argo, 5m:37s)

I0- (Argo 20m:26s)
11-(12m:50s)

12-(Argo,1hr:10m)
13-1hr: 31m

14- 1hr 41 s
15-(Argo , 14:00)

16-(Argo,1956)
17-(Argo , 19m:58s)

Research paper ISLAMOPHOBIA AND MEDIA STUDIES SINCE 9/11

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