2. What is semantics?What is semantics?
• Semantics is defined as the study ofSemantics is defined as the study of
meaning. However, it is not the onlymeaning. However, it is not the only
linguistic discipline that studies meaning.linguistic discipline that studies meaning.
• Semantics answers the question “whatSemantics answers the question “what
does this sentence mean”. In other words,does this sentence mean”. In other words,
it is the analysis of conventional meaningsit is the analysis of conventional meanings
in words and sentences out of context.in words and sentences out of context.
3. Reference and sense(1)Reference and sense(1)
• Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world.Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world.
There are two aspects of meaning.There are two aspects of meaning.
• Reference is the relation by which a word picks out orReference is the relation by which a word picks out or
identifies an entity in the world. But the referential theoryidentifies an entity in the world. But the referential theory
fails to account for certain kinds of linguistic expression.fails to account for certain kinds of linguistic expression.
• Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entitiesSome words are meaningful, but they identify no entities
in the real world, such as the words dragon, phoenix,in the real world, such as the words dragon, phoenix,
unicorn, and mermaid.unicorn, and mermaid.
• It is not possible for some words to find referent in theIt is not possible for some words to find referent in the
world, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etc.world, such as the words but, and, of, however, the, etc.
4. Reference and sense(2)Reference and sense(2)
• Speakers of English understand the meaning ofSpeakers of English understand the meaning of
a round triangle although there is no such graph.a round triangle although there is no such graph.
• Sense is the relation by which words stand inSense is the relation by which words stand in
human mind. It is mental representation, thehuman mind. It is mental representation, the
association with something in the speaker’s orassociation with something in the speaker’s or
hearer’s mind. The study of meaning from thehearer’s mind. The study of meaning from the
perspective of sense is called theperspective of sense is called the
representational approach.representational approach.
5. Classification of lexicalClassification of lexical
meanings (1)meanings (1)
• Referential meaning (denotative meaning) –Referential meaning (denotative meaning) –
central meaning of words, stable, universalcentral meaning of words, stable, universal
• Associative meaning – meaning that hinges onAssociative meaning – meaning that hinges on
referential meaning, less stable, more culture-referential meaning, less stable, more culture-
specificspecific
• Connotative meaning – the communicative valueConnotative meaning – the communicative value
an expression has by virtue of what it refers to,an expression has by virtue of what it refers to,
embraces the properties of the referent,embraces the properties of the referent,
peripheralperipheral
6. Classification of lexicalClassification of lexical
meanings (2)meanings (2)
• Social meaning (stylistic meaning) – what isSocial meaning (stylistic meaning) – what is
conveyed about the social circumstances of theconveyed about the social circumstances of the
use of a linguistic expressionuse of a linguistic expression
• Affective meaning – what is communicated ofAffective meaning – what is communicated of
the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writerthe feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer
towards what is referred totowards what is referred to
• Reflected meaning – what is communicatedReflected meaning – what is communicated
through association with another sense of thethrough association with another sense of the
same expressionsame expression
7. Classification of lexical meaningsClassification of lexical meanings
(3)(3)
• TaboosTaboos
• Collocative meaning – theCollocative meaning – the
associated meaning a wordassociated meaning a word
acquires in line with the meaningacquires in line with the meaning
of words which tend to co-occurof words which tend to co-occur
with itwith it
8. Lexical sense relations (1)Lexical sense relations (1)
• SynonymySynonymy
• Synonyms are words which have different forms butSynonyms are words which have different forms but
similar meanings.similar meanings.
• Dialectal synonyms – lift/elevator, flat/apartmentDialectal synonyms – lift/elevator, flat/apartment
• Synonyms of different styles – gentleman/guySynonyms of different styles – gentleman/guy
• Synonyms of different registers – salt/sodium chlorideSynonyms of different registers – salt/sodium chloride
• Synonyms differing in affective meaning – attract/seduceSynonyms differing in affective meaning – attract/seduce
• Synonyms differing in collocation – beautiful/handsome,Synonyms differing in collocation – beautiful/handsome,
able/capableable/capable
9. Lexical sense relations (2)Lexical sense relations (2)
Synonyms are frequently used in speakingSynonyms are frequently used in speaking
and writing as a cohesive device. In orderand writing as a cohesive device. In order
to avoid repetition the writer/speakerto avoid repetition the writer/speaker
needs to use a synonym to replace a wordneeds to use a synonym to replace a word
in the previous co-text when he/she wantsin the previous co-text when he/she wants
to continue to address that idea. Theto continue to address that idea. The
synonyms together function to createsynonyms together function to create
cohesion of the text.cohesion of the text.
10. Lexical sense relations (3)Lexical sense relations (3)
• AntonymyAntonymy
• Antonyms are words which are opposite inAntonyms are words which are opposite in
meaning.meaning.
• Gradable antonyms – pairs of words opposite toGradable antonyms – pairs of words opposite to
each other, but the positive of one word does noteach other, but the positive of one word does not
necessarily imply the negative of the other. Fornecessarily imply the negative of the other. For
example, the words hot and cold are a pair ofexample, the words hot and cold are a pair of
antonyms, but not hot does not necessarily meanantonyms, but not hot does not necessarily mean
cold, maybe warm, mild or cool. Therefore, thiscold, maybe warm, mild or cool. Therefore, this
pair of antonyms is a pair of gradable antonyms.pair of antonyms is a pair of gradable antonyms.
11. Lexical sense relations (4)Lexical sense relations (4)
• Complementary antonyms – words opposite to eachComplementary antonyms – words opposite to each
other and the positive of one implies the negative of theother and the positive of one implies the negative of the
other: alive/deadother: alive/dead
• Reversal (relational) antonyms – words that denote theReversal (relational) antonyms – words that denote the
same relation or process from one or the other direction:same relation or process from one or the other direction:
push/pull, up/down, teacher/studentpush/pull, up/down, teacher/student
• Antonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource inAntonymy is frequently utilized as a rhetorical resource in
language use. Oxymoron and antithesis based onlanguage use. Oxymoron and antithesis based on
antonymy. Gradable antonyms may give rise toantonymy. Gradable antonyms may give rise to
fuzziness.fuzziness.
12. Lexical sense relations (5)Lexical sense relations (5)
• HomonymyHomonymy
• Homonyms are words which have the same form, but differentHomonyms are words which have the same form, but different
meanings.meanings.
• Homographs – words which are identical in spelling, but different inHomographs – words which are identical in spelling, but different in
meaning and pronunciation: tear [] (v.)/tear [] (n.)meaning and pronunciation: tear [] (v.)/tear [] (n.)
• Homophones – words which are identical in pronunciation, butHomophones – words which are identical in pronunciation, but
different in spelling and meaning: see/seadifferent in spelling and meaning: see/sea
• Full homonyms – words which are identical in spelling andFull homonyms – words which are identical in spelling and
pronunciation, but different in meaning: bear (v. to give birth to apronunciation, but different in meaning: bear (v. to give birth to a
baby/to stand)/bear (n. a kind of animal)baby/to stand)/bear (n. a kind of animal)
• Rhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.SyntacticRhetorically, homonyms are often used as puns.Syntactic
categoriescategories
13. Lexical sense relations (6)Lexical sense relations (6)
• PolysemyPolysemy
• A polyseme is a word which hasA polyseme is a word which has
several related senses.several related senses.
• Polysemy is based on the intuition ofPolysemy is based on the intuition of
native speakers as well as thenative speakers as well as the
etymology or history of words.etymology or history of words.
14. Lexical sense relations (7)Lexical sense relations (7)
• HyponymyHyponymy
• Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion.
• Tiger, lion, elephant and dog areTiger, lion, elephant and dog are
hyponyms of the word animal. Words likehyponyms of the word animal. Words like
animal are called superordinates.animal are called superordinates.
• This kind of vertical semantic relation linksThis kind of vertical semantic relation links
words in a hierarchical work.words in a hierarchical work.
15. Componential analysisComponential analysis
• Componential analysis is the approach thatComponential analysis is the approach that
analyze word meaning by decomposing it into itsanalyze word meaning by decomposing it into its
atomic features. It shows the semantic featuresatomic features. It shows the semantic features
of a word.of a word.
• Examples:Examples:
• Man: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULTMan: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT
• Boy: +HUMAN +MALE –ADULTBoy: +HUMAN +MALE –ADULT
• Father: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT →PARENTFather: +HUMAN +MALE +ADULT →PARENT
• Daughter: +HUMAN –MALE 0ADULT ←PARENTDaughter: +HUMAN –MALE 0ADULT ←PARENT
16. Words and concepts (1)Words and concepts (1)
• CategorizationCategorization
• Categorization refers to the process by whichCategorization refers to the process by which
people use language to classify the worldpeople use language to classify the world
around and inside them.around and inside them.
• It is fundamental to human cognition.It is fundamental to human cognition.
• In the past two decades cognitive psychologistsIn the past two decades cognitive psychologists
and cognitive linguistics have gained newand cognitive linguistics have gained new
insights into the nature of categories.insights into the nature of categories.
17. Words and concepts (2)Words and concepts (2)
• PrototypesPrototypes
• A prototype is a set that has typical,A prototype is a set that has typical,
central features. Others are peripheralcentral features. Others are peripheral
features, which are not typical but related.features, which are not typical but related.
• HierarchiesHierarchies
• Conceptual networkConceptual network
18. Sentencial sense relations –Sentencial sense relations –
semantic relations of sentences(1)semantic relations of sentences(1)
• Sentences may be related in sense. I willSentences may be related in sense. I will
illustrate sense relations within and betweenillustrate sense relations within and between
sentences.sentences.
• Tautology: The bachelor is unmarried.Tautology: The bachelor is unmarried.
• Contradiction: The bachelor is married.Contradiction: The bachelor is married.
• Inconsistency: John is single./John is married.Inconsistency: John is single./John is married.
• Synonymousness: John broke the glass./TheSynonymousness: John broke the glass./The
glass was broken by John.glass was broken by John.
• Entailment: The meeting was chaired by aEntailment: The meeting was chaired by a
spinster./The meeting was chaired by a woman.spinster./The meeting was chaired by a woman.
19. Sentencial sense relations –Sentencial sense relations –
semantic relations of sentences(2)semantic relations of sentences(2)
• Presupposition: Sam has returned thePresupposition: Sam has returned the
book./Sam borrowed the book.book./Sam borrowed the book.
• These semantic relations are found within orThese semantic relations are found within or
between meaningful sentences. There arebetween meaningful sentences. There are
sentences which sound grammatical butsentences which sound grammatical but
meaningless. These sentences are said to bemeaningless. These sentences are said to be
semantically anomalous. For example:semantically anomalous. For example:
• Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.Colourless green ideas sleep furiously.
• The pregnant bachelor killed some phonemes.The pregnant bachelor killed some phonemes.
20. Metaphors (1)Metaphors (1)
• From rhetorical device to cognitive deviceFrom rhetorical device to cognitive device
• The classical view sees metaphor as a kind ofThe classical view sees metaphor as a kind of
decorative in addition to ordinary language, adecorative in addition to ordinary language, a
rhetorical device that makes language userhetorical device that makes language use
colourful.colourful.
• Another view of metaphor, which has becomeAnother view of metaphor, which has become
more influential in the past two decades, holdsmore influential in the past two decades, holds
that metaphors are a cognitive device. Metaphorthat metaphors are a cognitive device. Metaphor
is an essential element in our categorization ofis an essential element in our categorization of
the world and our thinking process.the world and our thinking process.
21. Metaphors (2)Metaphors (2)
• Cognitive linguistics has shown that metaphor isCognitive linguistics has shown that metaphor is
not an unusual or deviant way of usingnot an unusual or deviant way of using
language. The use of metaphor is not confinedlanguage. The use of metaphor is not confined
to literature, rhetoric and art. It is actuallyto literature, rhetoric and art. It is actually
ubiquitous in everyday communication.ubiquitous in everyday communication.
• The components of metaphorsThe components of metaphors
• Target domain – tenorTarget domain – tenor
• Source domain – vehicleSource domain – vehicle
22. Metaphors (3)Metaphors (3)
• Features of metaphorsFeatures of metaphors
• Metaphors are systematic.Metaphors are systematic.
• Metaphors can create similarities betweenMetaphors can create similarities between
the two domains involved.the two domains involved.
• Metaphors are also characterized byMetaphors are also characterized by
imaginative rationality.imaginative rationality.
