This document provides information on epithelial tissues. It defines epithelium and describes its structure and functions. Epithelial tissues are composed of cells that cover surfaces and line cavities. They are classified based on cell shape and number of layers. Epithelial cells exhibit polarity with distinct apical, lateral, and basal domains. Tight junctions between cells form a barrier and anchorages attach cells. The basement membrane anchors epithelium to connective tissue and regulates signaling. Epithelial tissues include simple and stratified types that vary in keratinization and serve protective, secretory, absorptive, and sensory roles.

1. Presented by
Dr. Hema Keswani
Rajiv gandhi college of dental sciences,Bangalore

2. CONTENTS
• Definition
• Structure and function
• Classification
• Cell polarity
• Apical domain ,lateral domains, basal domains
• Gland
• Epithelial cell renewal
• Oral epithelium

3. • Definition : epithelium covers body surfaces, lines body cavities and
constitute glands.
• Epithelium is an avascular tissue composed of cells that cover
the exterior body surfaces and line internal closed
cavities (including the vascular system) and body tubes that
communicate with the exterior (the alimentary, respiratory,
and genitourinary tracts). Epithelium also forms the secretory
portion (parenchyma) of glands and their ducts. In addition,
specialized epithelial cells function as receptors for the
special senses.

4. • In special situation epithelial cells lack a free surface
• ( epitheliod tissue)
Derived from progenitor mesnchymal cells
Ex- interstitial cells of leydig, islets of Langerhans ,parenchyma of
adrenal gland, tumor derived epithelium , epithelioreticular cells of
thymus, accumulation of CT macrophages in response to injury or
infection,

5. FUNCTIONS
•Secretion- columnar epithelium of stomach and gastric gland
•Absorption- columnar epithelium in intestine and PCT in kidney
•Transportation- material of cells along the surface of epithelium by motile
cilia
•Protection- skin and urothelium in bladder
•Receptor- taste and olfaction

8. Simple squamous epithelium
•A single layer of flattened cell ( “pavement”) disc shaped central nuclei
•Thin cytoplasm

9. Simple cuboidal cells
• single layer of cuboidal cell with large spherical nuclei
•Facilitates exchanges but are more involved in active mechanism that
require extensive organelle and membrane system, which necessitate
greater cell volume
•Ex – PCT and DCT

10. Simple columnar epithelium
•single layer of tall cells with round or oval nuclei
•Function – exchange
•Ex – alimentary canal ( intestinal absorptive cells)

11. Stratified epithelium
•Two or more layers
•Basal layer is attached to basement membrane
•Stratified squamous epithelium
• CK- keratinocytes display abundant desmosomes
•Function – protection
• variation-
•St sq keratinizing epithelium/ orthokeratinizing or cutaneous type
•Increased CK
•Skin and certain areas of masticatory mucosa

12. • Increased acidophilic surface layer, degree of keratinization is so high
that nuclei and other organelle are absent
• Keratohyaline granules present

14. St sq Para keratinizing epithelium
•Intermediate in CK
•Mostly found on masticatory mucosa
•Nuclei seen in surface layer but acidophilic is more prominent in these
cells compared to basal layer
•Keratohyaline may or may not be present
•No is less than SSKE

15. St sq nonkeratininzing epithelium
•Hypo keratinized because of less CK
•Mucous type
•Ex – oral cavity, esophagus, vagina
•Nuclei present in surface layer and among all 3 acidophilia is least
prominent
•Lower CK

16. Pseudo stratified epithelium
•All cells are attached to basal lamina but not all cell reach the free
surface
•Structure
1- similarity to simple epithelium
•Varying height ,tallest cell reach the apical surface of the epithelium
2- similarity to stratified epithelium
•Stratified due to nuclei arrangement at different levels

17. • Cells rest on basement membrane the cell are not stratified only their
nuclei appear stratified
• Ex- respiratory and urinary

18. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
• Resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal ,basal
cell cuboidal or columnar, surface cell dome shaped or squamous
like depending on the degree of organ stretch

19. CLINICAL CORRELATION
• Epithelial metaplasia is a reversible conversion of one
mature epithelial cell type to another mature epithelial cell
type.

20. Polarity
•All epithelia are polarized and exhibit specific domains that are related to
one of their surfaces
•Apical- located at free surface
•Lateral- located facing adjacent member of epithelium
•Basal- surface adjacent to CT
•Basal + lateral = basolateral

22. APICAL DOMAIN AND ITS MODIFICATIONS
• Apical surface occur at epithelium surface facing lumen also
known as free surface
• Ex – microvilli
• Cilia
• glycocalyx

23. MICROVILLI
• They are finger like cytoplasmic projections on the apical surface of
most epithelial cells
• Internal structure contain a core of actin filament that are cross
linked by several actin bundling proteins
• Striated border : intestine
• Brush border : kidney
• Stereo cilia : ductus epididymis, cochlear and vestibular hair cell of
internal ear

25. STEREOCILIA
• Unusually long, immotile microvilli
• Develops from microvilli by lateral addition of actin filaments to
actin bundles as well as elongation of the actin filament

27. CILIA
• Cytoplasmic and plasma membrane projection from apical surface
• Motility
• Contain core of microtubules arranged in specific configuration
called axoneme
• Axoneme extends from basal bodies centriole derived microtubule
organizing center(MTOC) located in apical region of ciliated cell

30. • 1 motile cilia – flagella posses typical 9+2 axonemal organization
• 2 primary cilia (monocilia)- solitary projection on almost all eukaryotic
cells (9+0)
• Immotile (lack of microtubule associated protein)
• Chemosensor,osmosensor,mechanosensor
• 3 nodal- found in embryo on bilaminar ebryonic disc at time of
gastrulation (9+0)
• Conc at area that surrounds primitive node
• Rotational movement
CLINICAL CORELATION
mutations in two genes, ADPKD1 and ADPKD2,
appear to affect development of these primary cilia, leading
to polycystic kidney disease (PKD).

31. • When nodal cilia are immotile or absent, nodal flow does
not occur, leading to random placement of internal body
organs. Therefore, primary ciliary dyskinesia (immotile cilia
syndrome) often results in situs inversus, a condition in
which the position of the heart and abdominal organs are
reversed.

32. JUNCTIONAL COMPLEXES
• Specific structural components that make up the barrier and the
attachment device are readily identified by EM are collectively
referred to as junctional epitheliumOccluding junctions are
impermeable and allow
• epithelial cells to function as a barrier. Also called tight
junctions, occluding junctions form the primary
intercellular diffusion barrier between adjacent cells
• Anchoring junctions- provide mechanical stability to epithelial cells
by linking the CK of one cell to CK of adjacent cell
It interact with both actin and intermediate filament

33. • Their signal transduction capability anchoring junction play imp role in
cell to cell recognition , morphogenesis, and differentiation
• Communicating junction – allow detail communication between adjacent
cells by diffusion of small ( less than 1200 daltons) molecules
( aminoacid, sugar, nucleotide, secondmessenger metabolite )

34. ZONA OCCLUDENS
• ZO is created by localized sealing of plasma membrane of
adjacent cells

35. • Ocludin – 60 kilodalton protein.It participates in maintaining the barrier
between adjacent cells as well as the barrier between the apical and
lateral domains
• Claudin – family (20-27 kilodalton)
• Claudin 2 and claudin 16 form aqueous channel for paracellular
passage of ion and molecule
24 members
mutation – hereditary deafness(claud 14)
• JAM-40 kd
IgSF- associated with claudin
the zonula occludens appears not as a continuous seal but as a
series of focal fusions between the cells

36. • All 3 protein contain unique amino acid sequence that attract
regulatory and signaling protein called PDZ domain protein
• ZO1- tumor suppressor
• ZO2-epidermal growth factor
• ZO3- protein interact with ZO1 and cytoplasmic domain of ocludin
• CMV & cholera toxin- ZO1 & ZO2 –cause junction to become
permeable

38. ANCHORING JUNCTIONS

39. • Two types of anchoring cell-to-cell junctions can be
identified on the lateral cell surface:•
• zonula adherens ( pl., zonulae adherentes), which interacts
with the network of actin filaments inside the cell; and
• macula adherens (pl., maculae adherentes) or desmosome,
which interacts with intermediate filaments

40. ZONAADHERANS(cell to cell)
•Interact with networks of actin filament inside the cells

41. MACUL ADHERANS (CELL TO CELL)
• Desmosomes which interact with intermediate filament

42. CELL ADHESION MOLECULES
• Heterotypic binding
• Homotypic binding
• 50 CAMs
Major families
• cadherins
• Integrins
• Selectin
• Immunoglobulin superfamily

43. CADHERINS
• These are calcium dependent glycoprotein contain extracellular
domain with 3-5 internal repeats, a single-spanning
transmembrane domain, and an intracellular domain.
• Localized in ZA
• homotypic
• Catenin link to actin filament
Regulate growth and cell differentiation

45. INTEGRINS
•15 alpha and 9 beta chains
•Heterotypic
•Interact with extracellular matrix molecules (collagen, laminin,
fibronectin)and with actin & IF
•Regulate cell adhesion, control of cell movement and shape,growth and
differentiation
• Integrins are composed of two noncovalently associated membrane-
spanning subunits, designated α and β.

46. SELECTIN
• Expressed on WBCs (leukocytes) and endothelial cells and
mediate neutrophill endothelial cell recognition
• Heterotype
• Accumulation of lymphatic tissues (homing procedure)
• In selectins, the extracellular domain consists of a calcium-
dependent lectin domain, an epidermal growth factor-like domain,
followed by a domain homologous to epidermal growth factor.
• selectins contain a hydrophobic transmembrane domain and a
short cytoplasmic tail

47. IGSF
• Glycoprotein
• Homotypic
Intercellular ICAM
Vascular VCAM
Down syndrome DSCAM
Platelet endothelial cell PECAM
JAM

48. • They have imp role in ca and tumor metastasis , angiogenesis,
inflammation, immune response, microbial attachment
E cadherin +catenin +vinculin + α actinin
fuzzy plaque formation

49. • Desmocollin and desmoglein-linkage to plasma membrane of adjacent
cells
2 domain in antiparallel orientatiom – cadherin zipper
They interact with plakoglobin, desmoplakins,

50. FOCAL ADHESION (CELL TO MATRIX)

51. HEMIDESMOSOME (CELL TO MATRIX)

52. GAP JUNCTION
• Communicating junctions, also called gap junctions
or nexuses, are the only known cellular structures that permit
the direct passage of signaling molecules from one cell
to another.
• Accumulation of transmembrane channel or pores
• Cx 46, Cx 50 – inherited cataracts

56. BASEMENT MEMBRANE
• discrete layer of electron dense matrix material 40-60 nm thick
between epithelium and CT called basal lamina/ lamina densa
• Between basal lamina and cells is a relatively clear or electron lucent
area called lamina lucida (40 nm wide) contain CAMs fibronectin and
laminin receptors
• Basal lamina in non epithelial cells is referred to as the external
lamina
• They consist of approx 50 protein that can be classified into 4 groups

57. • Collagens. At least three types of collagen species are
• present in the basal lamina
• type IV collagen.
• Two nonfibrillar types of collagens, type XV collagen and
type XVIII collagen, are also found in the basal lamina.
Type XV collagen plays an important role in stabilizing the
structure of the external lamina in skeletal and cardiac
muscle cells, whereas type XVIII collagen is mainly present
in vascular and epithelial basal laminae and is believed to
function in angiogenesis. In addition, type VII collagen
forms anchoring fibrils that link the basal lamina to the
underlying reticular lamina

58. • LAMININS- cross shaped glycoproteins molecules (140-400)
• 3 polypeptide chains
• It posses binding site for different integrin receptors in the basal
domain of the overlying epithelial cell
• Involved in cell to ECM interaction
• Role in development , differentiation and remodeling of epithelium
• 15 variation of laminin molecules

60. ENTACTIN / NIDOGEN
• Small rod like sulfated glycoprotein (100 kd)
• Link between laminin and type IV collagen network
• Bind Calcium ,support cell adhesion, promote neutrophill
chemotaxis and phagocytosis and interact with laminin ,perlecan
,fibronectin & type IV collagen

61. PROTEOGLYCAN
• A protein core to which heparn sulfate ,chondroitin sulfate or
dermatan sulfate side chains are attached
• Highly anionic ,highly hydrated, negatively charged
• PERLECAN- most common heparn sulfate proteoglycan found in all
basal laminae is the large multidomain proteoglycan

62. • Provide additional cross links to basal lamina by binding to laminin
,type IV collagen and entactin /nidogen
• ARGIN (500 kd)- glomerular basement membrane of kidney
• Basal lamina self assembly is initiated by polymerization of laminin in
the basal cell domain & interaction with type Iv collagen
suprastructure
• A layer of reticular fibers underlies the basal lamina

63. STRUCTURE FOR ATTACHMENT OF BASEMENT
MEMBRANE TO CT
•1 ANCHORING FIBRILS( TYPE IV collagen )- these fibrils entraps type III
collagen (reticular)fibers in underlying CT which ensure sound epithelial
anchorage
•Mutation- collagen VII- dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa
2 FIBRILLIN MICROFIBRILS – 10-12 nm in diameter
•Attached to lamina densa to elastic fibres
•Mutation FBN1 causes marfans syndrome

64. Discrete projection of lamina densa-
•On its CT side interact directly with reticular lamina to form an additional
binding site with type III collagen
Functions
•Structural attachment
•Compartmentalization
•Filtration
•Tissue scaffolding
•Regulation and signaling

65. CELL TO EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX JUNCTION
FOCAL ADHESION which anchor actin filaments of cytoskeleton
into basement membrne
•Transmembrane protein –integrin
•Actin binding protein(alpha actinin,vinculin,talin,paxillin)+ focal
adhesion kinase or tyrokinase
•Extracellular side-integrin+extracel matrix glycoprotein (laminin and
fibronectin)

66. HEMIDESMOSOMES which anchor the intermediate filaments of
cytoskeleton into basement membrane
•It exhibits an intracellular attachment plaque on cytoplasmic side of basal
plasma membrane
•Desmosomal plaque-desmoplakin like family protein
•Plectin -450 kd
•It interact with microtubule actin filaments and myosin II

68. ERBIN 180 kd mediate association of BP230 with integrin
•Integrin class of cell matrix receptor
Alpha 4 beta 6
– heterodimer molecule contain 2 polypeptide chains
•Interact with typeIV collagen, laminin 5,entactin/nidogen or perlecan
•Laminin 5 + alpha 4 beta 6= hemidesmosomes
•Mutation of laminin= junctional epidermolysis bullosa

69. • Type XVII collagen (BPAG2, BP 180), a transmembrane
molecule (180 kilodaltons), that regulates expression
and function of laminin-5. In experimental models, type
XVII collagen inhibits migration of endothelial cells
during angiogenesis and regulates keratinocyte migration
in the skin

70. • CD151 (32 kilodaltons), a glycoprotein that participates
in the clustering of integrin receptors to facilitate cellto–
extracellular matrix interactions.

72. GLANDS

73. ORAL EPTHELIUM
• The tissue that forms surface of the oral mucosa
• It constitutes primary barrier between oral environment and deeper
tissues
• It is of stratified sqaumous type
• Maintain structural integrity by continuous cell removal

74. The cells consists of 2 functional population
Progenitor population – performing epithelial proliferation
Maturing population – performing epithelial maturation

75. Progenitor cells present in the basal layer
• Dividing cells tend to occur on clusters
• Progenitor compartment consists of 2 functional sub
population of cells
•Small stem cells which produce basal cells and retain
the proliferate potential of the tissue
•Large amplifying cells-increase the number of the cells
for subsequent maturation
• (cannot be distinguished by appearance)

76. EPITHELIUM MATURATION
• Maturation follows 2 main patterns
• Keratinization
• Non – keratinization

77. Keratinization
• Occurs in masticatory mucosa which is tough & resistant to
abrasion
• Histologically , shows a number of distinct layers or strata

78. Stratum basale
• Basal layer adjacent to basement membrane
• Formed of cuboidal or columnar cells
• The cells in the basal layer capable of division and so called as
stratum germinivatum

79. Stratum spinosum
• Above basal layer
• Occur as rows of large elliptical or spherical cells
• Contacts only at points known as intercellular bridges or
desmosomes
• Microscopically looks spine like(prickle layer)

80. Stratum granulosm
•Next to spinous layer
•Consists of large flattened cells
•Cells contain small granules that stain immensely with hematoxylin
•The granules are called as keratohyalin granules

81. • Non keratinization
• Usually the lining mucosa
• Basal & prickle layers resemble that of keratinized except the
prickle cells of non- keratinized epithelium are slightly larger
and intercellular bridges are less conspicuous

82. • Above the prickle layer, divided into 2 zones
• Stratum intermedium
• Stratum superficiale
• # No granular layer
• # Superficial layer contain plump nucleus
• # Not stain intensely with eosin

84. CELLULAR EVENTS
• In both keratinized and non keratinized types the changes in cell
size and shape takes place by
• Synthesis of more structural protein in the form of
tonofilaments
• Appearance of new organelles
• Production of additional intercellular material
• (maturation depends on the amount of keratins present )

85. • KERATINIZED EPITHELIUM
• These granules are
• Small
• Membrane bound
• Size – 250 nm
• Contain glycolipid
• Originate from golgi system

86. • KERATINIZED EPITHELIUM
• In granular layer , these cells have greater size
• The membrane bound granules attach to the superficial cell
membrane & discharge the contents into the intercellular
space
• This discharge forms lipid rich permeability barrier

87. • KERATINIZED EPITHELIUM
• Superficial cells of granular layer develop thickening on the
inner aspect of their membrane
• This is responsible for the considerable resistance of
keratinized layer to chemical solvents
• Main constituent of this thickening is a protein known as
involucrin

89. • Keratohyalin granules associated with tonofibrils ,
thought to form matrx
• The protein which form the bulk of these granules is
filaggrin
• Sulphur rich loricrin is also present in some areas
• As the cells reach the superficial layer ,all the organelles
including nuclei& kerato-hyalin granules disappear
• Dehydration occurs and cells become packed with
filaments surrounded by filaggrin
• Cells are extremely flattened (squames )

90. • These squames are lost and replaced by cells from under
lying layers
• This clearance is important – prevent colonization of
pathogenic micro organisms (candida)
• Keratinized layer of gingiva may contain upto twenty layers
of squames

91. Para keratinization
• There is incomplete removal of organelles from the cells of
the granular layer
• The nuclei remains as shrunken, pyknotic structures
• Sometimes outermost squames of keratinized epithelium do
not look like the rest of the epithelium
(incomplete keratinization – due to rehydration)
• No pathologic significance

92. Non-keratinized epithelium
• In prickle cell layer, increase in size is more than that of
keratinized epithelium
• Tonofilaments remain dispersed
• Contain membrane bound granules
• They are circular in shape, with an amorphous coat

93. • Granular layer – cells are flattened
• Thickening of inner aspect of cell membrane is not obvious
• Accumulation of glycogen on the surface cells
• Keratohyalin granules rarely seen. If present, they are
regular spherical structures, surrounded by ribosomes ,not
associated with tonofilaments

94. • No fillagrin but loricrin is present
• This loricrin contributes to the internal thickening of the cell
membrane
• The cells of the superficial layer,
• Are more flattened
• Contain dispersed tonofilaments and nuclei
• Number of cell organelles are diminished
• Not dehydrated

96. PERMEABILITY AND ABSORPTION
• Depends on the
• Thickness of the epithelium
• Pattern of maturation
• Thinnest epithelium allow better penetration
• Permeability barrier is due to the lipids derived from the
membrane coating granules

97. NON KERATINOCYTES IN ORAL EPITHELIUM
• They together makes up 10% of cell population in the oral
epithelium
• In light microscope – appear as clear cells , coz they lack
desmosomal attachments to adjacent cells
• No tonofilaments
• No maturation

98. • Different non- keratinocytes in oral epithelium are
• Melanocytes
• Langerhans cells
• Merkel cells
• Inflammatory cells

99. MELANOCYTES
• Endogenous pigmentation most commonly contributing to the
colour of the oral mucosa are melanin & hemoglobin
• Melanin produced by melanocytes
• They are present in the basal layer of the oral epithelium

100. • Melanocytes arise embryonically from neural crest ectoderm
• They enter the epithelium at about 8 weeks of gestation
• Lack desmosomes & tonofilaments
• Posses long dentric process that extend between keratinocytes ,often
passing through several layers

101. • Melanin synthesized with in the melanocytes as small structures called
melanosomes
• Melanosomes are inoculated into the cytoplasm of adjacent
keratinocytes by the dendritic process
• In heavily pigmented tissues melanosomes groups identified through
light microscope

102. • Colour differences in oral mucosa due 2
• Relative activity of melanocytes in producing melanin
• Rate at which melanosomes broken down in the keratinocytes

103. • In heavily pigmented persons melanin may be seen in con
tissues , which is taken up by macrophages and called as
melanophages
• Skin colour , directly proportional to melanin deposition
Melanocytes involved in pigmented lesions of oral mucosa are
• Oral melanotic macule
• Nevus
• Melanoma

104. LANGERHANS CELL
• Seen in the suprabasal layer
• Lacks desmosomal attachments
• Characterized by the presence of a small rod or flask shaped
granules called Birbeck granules
• Capable of limited division with in the epithelium
• Can move in and out of the epithelium

105. • Source – Bone marrow
• Have immunologic function (recognizing & processing antigenic
material that enters the epithelium from external environment &
present it to the helper T lymphocytes)
• Some times they migrate from epithelium to regional lymph nodes as
they express Ia antigens and Fc receptors
• Important role in
contact hypersensitivity
anti-tumor immunity
graft rejection

107. MERKEL CELL
• Situated in the basal layer
• Not a dentritic cell
• Posses tonofilaments & occasional desmosomes , hence not
always resemble clear cells in histologic sections
• Nucleus is often deeply invaginated and may contain a
characteristic rodlet

108. • Characteristic feature is presence of small membrane bound vesicles
in the cytoplasm sometimes situated adjacent to a nerve fiber
associated with the cell
• Granules release neurotransmitter between the nerve and thus trigger
an impulse
• Sensory & respond to touch
• May arise from division of a keratinocyte

109. INFLAMMATORY CELLS
• Mostly lymphocytes
• Some times PMN & mast cells
• Lymphocytes often associated with Langerhans cells
• Few inflammatory cells – normal component in non keratinocyte
population

111. CYTOKERATINS IN ORAL EPITHELIUM

112. • Cytokeratins are protein of keratin-containing intermediate filaments found in
the intracytoplasmic cytoskeleton of epithelial tissue. The term "cytokeratin"
began to be used in the late 1970s (for example, see "Intermediate-sized
filaments of human endothelial cells" by Franke, Schmid, Osborn and Weber)
when the protein subunits of keratin intermediate filaments inside cells were first
being identified and characterized. In 2006 a new systematic nomenclature for
keratins was created and now the proteins previously called "cytokeratins" are
simply called keratins.[2]
•
There are two types of cytokeratins: the acidic type I cytokeratins and the basic or
neutral type II cytokeratins. Cytokeratins are usually found in pairs comprising
a type I cytokeratin and a type II cytokeratin. Basic or neutral cytokeratins include
CK1, CK2, CK3, CK4, CK5, CK6, CK7, and CK8. Acidic cytokeratins are CK9,
CK10, CK12, CK13, CK14, CK16, CK17, CK18, CK19 and CK2

113. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT
•Essential component o f cytoskeleton and nucleoskeleton of all cells
•65 members of multigene family present known to encode 10-12 nm
filament.
•Cytokeratin : largest group of Ifs with about 50 genes
•Based on gene structure and sequence homologues at least 5 classes of
Ifs
•I-acidic
•II basic
•III vimentin,desmin ,etc
•IV neurofilaments
•V nuclear lamins
•VI beaded filaments

114. • 30 different types are present
• Lowest mol.wt is (40Kda) found in glandular and simple epithelia
• Highest mol.wt is (67Kda) found in keratinized stratified epithelium
• The types of keratin present may vary between different epithelia and
even between different layers within the epithelia

115. • Assembly group 1&2 – cytoplasmic IFs
• Assembly group 3 – nuclear Ifs
• Organization- in epithelium ck referred to as tonofilaments ( ~10nm
filament visualized with TEM )
• And bundles of tonofilaments are called as tonofibrils
• CLINICAL CORELATION
changes in neurofilaments within brain tissue are characteristic
of Alzheimer’s disease
In Alexander disease presence of cytoplasmic inclusions
in astrocytes (Rosenthal fibers) that contain accumulation
of intermediate filament protein

116. • Keratinized epithelium has keratins 1, 6, 10, 16
• Non-keratinized epithelium has keratins 4, 13

118. REFERENCES
• Ross Histology and Text Atlas 6th
edition
• Orbans Oral Histology and Embryology 13th
edition
• Ten Cate’s Oral Histology 8th
edition
• Oral Anatomy,Histology and Embryology (B.K.B Berkovitz, G.R
Holland, B.J. Moxham) 3rd
edition
• internet