prepared by R. Gensch*, A. Miso* and G..S. Itchon** * Sustainable Sanitation Center, Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, Masterson Avenue, Manresa Heights, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines (E-mail: robert.gensch@web.de; annamiso@googlemail.com) ** Department of Preventive and Community Medicine, Jose P. for Urban Environments in Asia, 25-28 May 2011, Manila, Philippines. organized by International Water Association (IWA).

1. Experimental Study on the Use of Human Urine for Selected
Philippine Vegetable Crops: Assessment of Macronutrient
Nutrient Content in Philippine Urine and Determination of
Appropriate Urine Application Rates
R. Gensch*, A. Miso* and G..S. Itchon**
* Sustainable Sanitation Center, Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan, Masterson Avenue, Manresa Heights,
Cagayan de Oro, Philippines
(E-mail: robert.gensch@web.de; annamiso@googlemail.com)
** Department of Preventive and Community Medicine, Jose P. Rizal School of Medicine, Xavier University –
Ateneo de Cagayan, Corrales Avenue, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines
(E-mail: gsijuly18@yahoo.com)
Abstract
To assess agricultural potential of human urine as a liquid fertilizer under Philippine conditions an
experimental study was conducted to determine the average macronutrient (N,P,K) content of
human urine and appropriate urine application levels for commonly planted vegetable crops:
Petchay, Sweet Corn and Eggplant. The study was conducted in 3 study locations representing the
3 main Philippine regions: Luzon, Visayas. Mindanao.
In each study area urine was collected from 10 different toilets and the average N,P,K content per
study site and the countrywide average was determined. A randomized complete block design was
used for agricultural experiments with 5 different treatments and 4 replications for each crop and
study site. The 5 treatments include 3 urine application levels (75%, 100%, 125% of calculated
optimum level that correspond to N-demand of plants), 1 treatment with application of synthetic
fertilizer, and 1 treatment without urine/synthetic fertilizer application. The experimental variables
observed were fresh marketable yield and plant height.
The determined average N,P,K content in Philippine urine is N: 4.35 g/l, P: 0.4 g/l, K: 1.74 g/l. Of
the 3 investigated urine levels, the 125% treatment showed best results in terms of marketable
yield and plant height and can be attributed to the fact that the study was conducted during rainy
season. Urine application with best results in plant height and marketable yield showed
comparable results to synthetic fertilizer treatment, with either no significant difference or only
slightly lesser yields. Compared with no fertilizer application the addition of urine significantly
increased yield by 1.5-5 times, depending on plant type and study location.
Application of urine as a fertilizer source can be recommended to increase agricultural production
and may potentially substitute synthetic fertilizers. It is recommended to conduct larger-scale
follow-up studies in order to consolidate existing data and to investigate potential differences
during dry season.
Keywords
Sustainable Sanitation, Ecological Sanitation, Urine, Agricultural Reuse, Urine Diversion
Dehydration Toilets, Nutrients
INTRODUCTION
Human urine is a valuable source of nutrients and properly sanitized urine can be considered an
effective liquid fertilizer in agricultural production (RICHERT et al. 2010). Substantial portion of
the soluble elements in urine are essential plant nutrients such as Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and
Potassium (K). The nutrient amount in human urine is dependent on the local diet and almost all of
the essential plant nutrients (N, P, and K) consumed with the daily food intake leave the human
body unchanged (JOENSSON et al. 2004). Urine contains most of these macronutrients as well as
smaller fractions of micronutrients in a plant available form and is particularly rich in Nitrogen.
Urine can, therefore, be considered a well-balanced nitrogen-rich liquid fertilizer.
Ecological Sanitation (ecosan) recognizes the potential of urine as a vast largely untapped valuable

2. resource that can help in the mitigation of poverty, malnutrition and food insecurity particularly at a
household level by providing a liquid fertilizer source that is immediately available and free,
regardless of logistic and economical resources. The term ecosan is often associated with the so-
called Urine Diversion Dehydration Toilet (UDDT), which is the most popular and most widely
used ecosan solution in the Philippines. Due to the different properties, urine and faeces are
collected separately in UDDTs and after storage of one month urine can be considered safe for use
in agriculture (WHO 2006).
However, since the nutrient content in human urine is very much dependent on the local diet it can
vary greatly between countries and regions. Up to the present time, there is neither reliable data
available on the nutrient content in human urine in the Philippines nor are there any
recommendations available on appropriate urine application levels for different vegetable crops
under Philippine conditions. While the ecosan community is promoting the re-use of urine in
agriculture, there is no scientific evidence on the response of different crops to different application
levels of urine.
Such information would greatly support the further spread of more sustainable sanitation solutions
like ecosan in the Philippines and would allow for the development of sound guidelines for the
agricultural community on the use of urine as a liquid fertilizer in vegetable crop production under
Philippine conditions and thus, make its agricultural use more attractive to farmers.
In order to address this knowledge gap this study will therefore determine the average amount of
macronutrients (N,P,K) in source-separated and 1-month old, stored human urine coming from 3
different representative areas in the Philippines (La Union, Bayawan, Cagayan de Oro). It will
furthermore determine appropriate urine application rates based on existing recommendations for
synthetic fertilizers for 3 different commonly planted vegetable crops, namely Sweet Corn, Petchay
and Eggplant in the 3 different study areas.
The findings of this study will enter into a national Philippine guideline document on the use of
urine as a liquid fertilizer in agriculture.
METHODS
The study was conducted from February 2010 until January 2011 simultaneously in three (3)
different study sites in the Philippines namely La Union, Bayawan and Cagayan de Oro
representing the three (3) main Philippine regions: Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao.
An amount of around 1000 liters of urine per study area was collected from a minimum of 10
different household and/or school Urine Diversion Dehydration Toilets (UDDT) per study location.
The urine was stored for 1 month in a 1000 liter storage container for hygienization purposes as
recommended by WHO (WHO 2006). Randomly chosen urine samples from five (5) out of the ten
(10) toilets as well as three (3) samples from the homogenously mixed urine were analyzed in terms
of their Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) content. Based on the results the average
N, P, K content for each study site as well as the average for all the research areas was determined.
A randomized complete block design was used for the agricultural experiments with five (5)
different treatments and four (4) replications for each of the three (3) planted vegetable crops
(Sweet Corn, Petchay, Eggplant) in each study site. The planting bed size was 5m x 1.5m for
Eggplant and Sweet Corn and 2.5m x 1m for Petchay with 20 plants/bed, planted in 2 rows, to
imitate actual field conditions as far as possible.
The five (5) treatments include three (3) treatments with different urine application levels, one (1)
treatment with application of synthetic fertilizer using existing synthetic fertilizer recommendations
and one (1) control without any urine or synthetic fertilizer application. The three (3) urine
treatments are 75%, 100% and 125% of the theoretically calculated optimum urine application level
that correspond to the N-demand of the plants, based on existing synthetic fertilizer

3. recommendations from the Philippine Allotment Garden Manual (PUVeP 2008) and initially
determined average N, P, K content in Philippine urine.
Standard operating procedures (PUVEP 2008) for Eggplant, Sweet Corn and Petchay were followed
with basal fertilizer application (at transplanting) for all three (3) vegetable crops and additional
side dressings one (1) week and three (3) weeks after transplanting for Eggplant and side dressings
one (1) week and four (4) weeks after transplanting for Sweet Corn. Prior to application the
identified urine amounts were diluted with water at a 1:1 ratio. In order to draw conclusions for later
interpretation of the data, soil samples were taken from experimental areas and analyzed as regards
N, P, K content.
The research variables used were the fresh weight of the marketable yield at harvest (with one
harvest for Petchay and Sweet Corn and the sum of three (3) consecutive harvests for Eggplant) as
well as the height of the plants for Sweet Corn and Eggplant at transplanting/basal fertilizer
application, at first and second side dressing and at the time of harvest.
RESULTS
Urine analysis
The results from the laboratory analysis determining the N, P, K content of the urine samples from
the different study sites can be found in Table 1. It also included the calculated average N,P,K
content in the urine per study location. The average N, P, K content is based on the results from the
mixed samples in each study location. The only exemption is Bayawan. Here the average P content
is based on the individual collected samples since the P-content of the mixed sample is significantly
lower than those from the individual samples. It is assumed that this is because the urine has not
been mixed properly before samples were taken and that part of the available P in the mixed urine
already settled at the bottom of the 1000-liter container.
Table 1. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium content (in %) in analysed urine samples and
calculated average per study site
Location N (%) P (%) K (%)
CDO sample (Elementary School) 0.260 0.027 0.251
CDO sample (Chapel) 0.313 0.015 0.260
Cagayan de Oro
CDO sample (Elementary School) 0.284 0.020 0.244
CDO sample (High School) 0.339 0.014 0.171
CDO sample (Hospital) 0.305 0.012 0.037
CDO mixed sample 1 0.448 0.048 0.162
CDO mixed sample 2 0.437 0.034 0.180
CDO mixed sample 3 0.437 0.037 0.185
Cagayan de Oro - Average (based on mixed samples) 0.441 0.039 0.176
La union sample 1 (Household) 0.342 0.014 0.154
La union sample 2 (Household) 0.522 0.033 0.143
La union sample 3 (Household) 0.072 0.006 0.102
La Union
La union sample 4 (Household) 0.356 0.014 0.086
La union sample 5 (Household) 0.06 0.007 0.058
La Union mixed sample 1 0.469 0.046 0.176
La Union mixed sample 2 0.490 0.066 0.157
La Union mixed sample 3 0.478 0.051 0.180
La Union - Average (based on mixed samples) 0.479 0.054 0.171
Bayawan sample 1 (Household) 0.178 0.013 0.144
Ba
ya
Bayawan sample 2 (Household) 0.079 0.023 0.165

4. Bayawan sample 3 (Household) 0.207 0.024 0.155
Bayawan sample 4 (Household) 0.037 0.026 0.147
Bayawan sample 5 (Household) 0.276 0.045 0.028
Bayawan mixed sample 1 0.341 0.008 0.195
Bayawan mixed sample 2 0.344 0.010 0.171
Bayawan mixed sample 3 0.469 0.009 0.160
Bayawan - Average (of mixed samples, except for P. 0.385 0.026 0.175
Average P concentration taken from individual samples)
The corresponding average macronutrient (N,P,K) content per study location and the Philippine
average (in g/liter) can be found in Table 2.
Table 2. Calculated average N,P,K content (in g/liter) per study area and Philippine average
Location N (g/liter) P (g/liter) K (g/liter)
Cagayan de Oro 4.41 0.40 1.76
La Union 4.79 0.54 1.71
Bayawan 3.85 0.26 1.75
Philippine average 4.35 0.40 1.74
The urine application rates for Sweet Corn, Eggplant and Petchay have been determined based on
the average macronutrient content result for each study area above and the existing synthetic
fertilizer recommendations of the Allotment Garden Manual (PUVeP 2008). Since the N content in
human urine is considerably higher than the P and K content and to avoid over-application of urine
the calculations are based on the N-content of the urine (4.41g/liter in Cagayan de Oro, 4.79 g/liter
in La Union, and 3.85 g/liter in Bayawan respectively).
Table 3. Calculated urine application rates for Petchay, Sweet Corn and Eggplant for each of the 3
study areas
Application Synthetic fertilizer Treatment (% Recommended amount of
recommendations following of assumed urine to be applied (liter/hill)
SOP* (corresponding optimal nutrient CDO La Union Bayawan
nutrient content in g/hill) application)
Sweet Corn
1st 7.0 g/hill Complete 14-14-14 75 0.17 0.15 0.20
Application (N: 0.98, P: 0.43, K: 0.81) 100 0.22 0.20 0.26
(Basal)
125 0.27 0.26 0.33
nd
2 4.0 g/hill Urea 75 0.31 0.29 0.36
Application (N: 1.84) 100 0.42 0.38 0.48
(1 WAT)
125 0.52 0.48 0.60
rd
3 7.0 g/hill Urea 75 0.54 0.50 0.63
Application 4.0 g/hill MOP 100 0.73 0.67 0.84
(4 WAT) (N: 3.22, K: 1.99)
125 0.91 0.84 1.05
Eggplant
1st 10.0 g/hill DAP 75 0.31 0.28 0.35
Application (N: 1.80, P: 2.02) 100 0.41 0.38 0.47
(Basal)
125 0.51 0.47 0.59
nd
2 3.9 g/hill Urea 75 0.31 0.28 0.35

5. Application 5.8 g/hill MOP 100 0.41 0.38 0.47
(1 WAT) (N: 1.79, K: 2.89) 125 0.51 0.47 0.59
rd
3 7.9 g/hill Urea 75 0.62 0.56 0.71
Application 5.8 g/hill MOP 100 0.82 0.76 0.94
(3 WAT) (N: 3.63, K: 2.89)
125 1.02 0.94 1.18
Petchay
1st 10.0 g/hill DAP 75 0.31 0.28 0.35
Application (N: 1.80, P: 2.02) 100 0.41 0.38 0.47
(Basal)
125 0.51 0.47 0.59
(WAT: Weeks after Transplanting, DAP: Diammonium Phosphate, MOP: Muriate of Potash)
Soil analysis
Table 4. N,P,K content in the soil in Cagayan de Oro, La Union & Bayawan
Location N (g/liter) P (g/liter) K (g/liter)
Cagayan de Oro 0.05 0.007 (73ppm) 0.04 (406ppm)
La Union 0.06 0.03 (318ppm) 0.04 (374ppm)
Bayawan 0.10 0.02 (233ppm) 0.04 (438ppm)
Agricultural experiments
The agricultural field trial with 3 different urine level treatments (75%, 100%, 125% of the
calculated urine application optimum), 1 synthetic fertilizer application treatment and 1 control
(without any urine or synthetic fertilizer application) showed the following results for the
marketable yield of Petchay, Eggplant and Sweet Corn in the respective 3 study locations:
Table 5. Average marketable yield (kg/bed) for Petchay, Sweet Corn and Eggplant in Cagayan de
Oro, La Union & Bayawan
T1 T2 T3 C1 C2
(urine (urine (urine (control w/o (control
application application application urine/ with
with 75% of with 100% of with 100% of synthetic synthetic
calculated N calculated N calculated N fertilizer fertilizer
optimum) optimum) optimum) application) application)
Petchay
Cagayan de 1.830 2.202 2.411 0.511 2.513
Oro
La Union 0.611 0.608 0.588 0.261 0.660
Bayawan 2.375 2.425 2.613 0.925 2.728
Sweet Corn
Cagayan de 8.276 8.341 8.879 5.056 8.839
Oro
La Union 3.572 3.641 4.186 2.103 4.679
Bayawan 6.700 7.125 7.350 5.100 7.775
Eggplant (after 3rd harvest)
Cagayan de 9.186 12.594 18.070 3.506 16.205
Oro
La Union 8.261 8.047 8.593 5.634 9.808
Bayawan 5.250 5.625 6.675 1.425 6.175

6. Average marketable yield - Petchay Average marketable yield - Petchay Average marketable yield - Petchay
(CDO) (La Union) (Bayawan)
3 3 3 2.728
2.513 2.613
2.411 2.375 2.425
2.5 2.202 2.5 2.5
2 1.83 2 2
kg/bed
kg/bed
kg/bed
1.5 1.5 1.5
0.925
1 1 1
0.611 0.608 0.588 0.66
0.511
0.5 0.5 0.261 0.5
0 0 0
T1 T2 T3 C1 C2 T1 T2 T3 C1 C2 T1 T2 T3 C1 C2
Average marketable yield – Sweet Average marketable yield – Sweet Average marketable yield – Sweet
Corn (CDO) Corn (La Union) Corn (Bayawan)
10 10 10
8.879 8.839
9 8.276 8.341 9 9
7.775
8 8 8 7.125 7.35
6.7
7 7 7
6 6 6
kg/bed
kg/bed
kg/bed
5.056 5.1
4.679
5 5 4.186 5
3.572 3.641
4 4 4
3 3 2.103 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
T1 T2 T3 C1 C2 T1 T2 T3 C1 C2 T1 T2 T3 C1 C2
Average marketable yield – Eggplant Average marketable yield – Eggplant Average marketable yield – Eggplant
(CDO) (La Union) (Bayawan)
20 18.07 20 20
18 16.205 18 18
16 16 16
14 12.594 14 14
12 12 12
kg/bed
kg/bed
kg/bed
9.186 9.808
10 10 8.261 8.047 8.593 10
8 8 8 6.675 6.175
5.634 5.25 5.625
6 6 6
3.506
4 4 4
1.425
2 2 2
0 0 0
T1 T2 T3 C1 C2 T1 T2 T3 C1 C2 T1 T2 T3 C1 C2
The measured height at different planting stages for Eggplant and Sweet Corn in each of the 3 study
areas is reflected in the following graphs:
Average plant height of Eggplant (CDO) Average plant height of Sweet Corn (CDO)
90 250 C2
T3
80 C2 T2
T3 T1
70 200 C1
T1
T2
60
C1
150
50
cm
cm
40
100
30
20
50
10
0 0
basal 1st side dressing 2nd side dressing harvest basal 1st side dressing 2nd side dressing harvest

7. Average plant height of Eggplant (La Union) Average plant height of Sweet Corn (La Union)
70 120
C2 C2
T3 T3
60
100
T2
T2
T1 T1
50
C1 80
C1
40
cm
cm
60
30
40
20
20
10
0 0
basal 1st side dressing 2nd side dressing harvest basal 1st side dressing 2nd side dressing harvest
Average plant height of Eggplant (Bayawan) Average plant height of Sweet Corn (Bayawan)
80 250 C2
C2
70 T3
T3 200 T2
60 T1
T2
T1
50 C1 150
C1
cm
cm
40
100
30
20
50
10
0 0
basal 1st side dressing 2nd side dressing harvest basal 1st side dressing 2nd side dressing harvest
DISCUSSION
N,P,K content in urine
The results of the study show that Philippine urine contains considerable amounts of N, P and K and
is particularly rich in Nitrogen. For the 3 study areas there are no significant differences in the N
and K content. However for the P content there are significant variations among the 3 study areas.
Since the P content is the only significant deviation this might be explained with the fact that part of
the P content tends to precipitate at the bottom of the urine container and it is assumed that the urine
might not have been mixed properly during the sample taking.
Urine application rates (Cagayan de Oro)
Petchay: Out of the 3 urine treatments the T3 (125% of the calculated urine optimum) treatment
shows the best result with regard to the average marketable yield. The average yield with the 125%
urine treatment is comparable to the use of synthetic fertilizer. T test shows no significant difference
in average marketable yield using 125% urine application and using synthetic fertilizer. Application
of synthetic fertilizer as well as all 3 urine treatments results in significantly higher yields than no
fertilizer application (control). The average yield of the synthetic fertilizer treatment and the 125%
urine treatment is around 5 times as much as the control (C1). Therefore, this study is able to show
that the use of 125% urine is able to produce comparable marketable yield in Petchay as using
synthetic fertilizer.
Sweet Corn: The comparison of average yields of T1, T2, T3 (75%, 100%, and 125% urine,
respectively) shows no significant difference using the t-test. Based on the results obtained, 75%,
100% and 125% urine concentrations are equally effective for use in Sweet Corn. However, based
on the trend seen, 125% urine concentration seems to produce the best result in terms of yield.
Comparing the results of the application of 125% urine treatment (T3) to the use of synthetic
fertilizer also shows no statistically significant difference. This shows that the use of 125% urine
on Sweet Corn is as effective as using synthetic fertilizer. Comparison of C1 and C2, and C1 with
the 3 urine treatments is significant. Application of synthetic fertilizer as well as all 3 urine
treatments results in significantly higher yields than no fertilizer application (control). The average

8. yield of the synthetic fertilizer treatment as well as the 3 urine treatments is around twice the
amount compared to the control (C1). As for the average plant height at harvest T1, T2, T3 and C2
show very similar results and the results show no statistical difference using the t test. Use of 75%,
100%, or 125% of the calculated urine optimum will produce the same height at harvest as use of
synthetic fertilizer. C1 (control), however, resulted in significantly shorter plants compared to all
the other groups.
Eggplant: Among the urine treatments the best result is shown by T3 (125% urine application),
which is similar to the C2 (synthetic fertilizer) application. The difference between T3 and C2 is not
significant using the t-test, which means that the use of 125% urine treatment will produce
comparable results to the use of synthetic fertilizer. Application of synthetic fertilizer as well as all
3 urine treatments resulted in significantly higher yields than no fertilizer application (control). The
average yield of the synthetic fertilizer treatment and the 125% urine treatment is around 5 times as
much as the control (C1). As for the average plant height the best result is shown by T3 followed by
C2. T3 and C2 results show no statistical difference, meaning that the T3 treatment will produce
comparable results to the use of synthetic fertilizer in terms of average height of plant at harvest.
Urine application rates (La Union)
For Petchay the best result for average yield is exhibited by C2. Among the urine treatment groups,
it is exhibited by T1. There is no significant difference between C2 and T1, between C2 and T2, and
between C2 and T3 results using t-test. Furthermore, there are no significant differences between T1
and T2, T2 and T3, and T1 and T3. There is a slightly significant difference, however, between T3
and C2. C1 (control) compared to all the treatment groups and C2 shows highly significant
differences with a considerably lesser yield than all other treatments. The average yield of the
synthetic fertilizer treatment as well as the 3 urine treatments is around twice the amount compared
to the control (C1).
For Sweet Corn the best result for average yield is shown by C2. Among the urine treatment groups,
it is shown by T3 with no significant difference between T3 and C2. There are significant
differences seen between T1 and T3 and T2 and T3. C1 (control) compared to all treatment groups
and C2 shows highly significant differences with a considerably lesser yield than all other
treatments. The average yield of the synthetic fertilizer treatment as well as the 3 urine treatments is
around twice the amount compared to the control (C1). Best results in plant height are shown by
C2. Among the treatment groups, best plant height result is shown by T3. There are no significant
differences shown comparing C2 to T3, C2 to T2 and C2 to T1. However, the difference is
significant comparing T1 and T2, T1 and T3, and T1 and C2. C1 (control) compared to all the
treatment groups and C2 shows highly significant difference.
For Eggplant T3 shows the best results for the average yield weight. Using t-test, the difference is
not significant compared to mean weight results at harvest of T1, T2, T3 and C2. Results of C1,
however, are highly significant compared to T1, T2, T3 and C2, with considerably lesser average
yields. The average yield of the synthetic fertilizer treatment as well as the 3 urine treatments is
nearly twice the amount compared to the control (C1). Best results in plant growth are exhibited by
T3 in all stages of the study and at harvest. Using t-test, the result for plant height is highly
significant compared to T1, slightly significant compared to T2 and highly significant compared to
C1. T–test further shows there is no significant difference in growth rates between T3 and C2.
Urine application rates (Bayawan)
For Petchay best result for the average yield is shown by C2. Among the urine treatment groups, it
is shown by T3. There is no significant difference shown between C2 and T3. There is a slight
statistically significant difference between C2 and T2, C2 and T1. C1 (control) shows a significant
difference when compared to all treatment groups and C2. Application of synthetic fertilizer as well
as all 3 urine treatments results in significantly higher yields than no fertilizer application (control).
The average yield of the synthetic fertilizer treatment as well as the 3 urine treatments is around
three times the amount compared to the control (C1).

9. For Sweet Corn the best result for the average yield is shown by C2. Among the urine treatment
groups, T3 shows the best result, followed by T2, and then T1. There is no significant difference
between C2 and T3. However, there are significant differences between C2 and T1, and between
C2 and T2. There are statistically significant differences between C1 (control) and all the urine
treatment groups and between C1 and C2. Application of synthetic fertilizer as well as all 3 urine
treatments results in significantly higher yields than no fertilizer application (control). The average
yield of the synthetic fertilizer treatment as well as the 3 urine treatments is around 1.5 times the
amount compared to the control (C1). Best results in plant height are shown by C2. Among the
treatment groups, best plant height result is shown by T3. There are only slight significant
differences shown comparing C2 to T3, C2 to T2 and C2 to T1. C1 (control) compared to all the
treatment groups and C2 shows highly significant difference.
For Eggplant the best results are shown by C2 in terms of average marketable yield. Among the
urine treatment groups, T3 shows the best result, followed by T2 and then T1. There is no
significant difference between the T3 and C2. However, there are significant statistical differences
between T3 and T1 and T3 and T2. C1 (control) shows a significant difference in comparison to all
the urine treatment groups and in comparison to C2. Application of synthetic fertilizer as well as all
3 urine treatments results in significantly higher yields than no fertilizer application (control). The
average yield of the synthetic fertilizer treatment as well as the 3 urine treatments is around four
times the amount compared to the control (C1).
Summary
Out of the 3 investigated urine treatment groups in the majority of cases T3 (125%) showed the best
results in terms of average marketable yield and plant height in the 3 study areas. One of the
possible reasons might be that due to a delay in the initial urine collection the study was conducted
during the rainy season and a certain amount of the applied urine nutrients might have been washed
out during the rainfall events.
In the majority of cases the urine application with the best results in plant height and marketable
yield showed comparable results to the synthetic fertilizer treatment, with no or only slight
significant difference. It shows that urine can be considered as effective as synthetic fertilizers.
The increase in yield that can be attributed to the application of urine as well as application of the
synthetic fertilizer treatment in comparison to no urine or synthetic fertilizer application (negative
control) is between 2-5 times for Petchay, around twice as much for Sweet Corn, and 1.5-5 times
for Eggplant.
Among the 3 study areas considerable differences in the overall average yield for the 3 planted
vegetable crops have been observed that cannot be fully explained. The analysis of the nutrient
content in the soil from the 3 study areas shows no significant differences (except for the P content
in CDO which is comparatively low, and the N-content in Bayawan which is comparatively high)
and allows no further conclusions that would explain the differences in the overall yield. The
differences in the yield may be attributed the other local site conditions such as available sunlight,
water, and general soil conditions. Despite the differences in the overall yields and plant heights the
general trends and results per treatment, however, remain comparable.
CONCLUSIONS
Due its high macronutrient content, particularly N, urine can be considered a valuable liquid
nutrient source and a potential synthetic fertilizer substitute in agricultural production. The average
N, P, K content in Philippine urine is 4.35 g/l of N, 0.4 g/l of P, and 1.74 g/l of K with a N,P,K ratio
of 11/1/1.5.
The application of urine that corresponds to the actual N requirements of the plants results in similar
yields and plant heights as those grown with synthetic fertilizers. Compared with no fertilizer
application the addition of urine in quantities corresponding to the plant needs can significantly

10. increase the marketable yield by 1.5 to 5 times, depending on the study location and the crops
planted.
Best fertilizing results with urine were achieved with applying a urine rate that corresponds to 125%
of the calculated optimum N requirements of the plants based on existing synthetic fertilizer
recommendations. However since the study was conducted during the rainy season this slightly
higher amount might be partly attributed to nutrient losses during periodic rainfall events.
RECOMMENDATIONS
From an agricultural point of view the application of urine as a liquid fertilizer source is
recommended to increase agricultural production at only minimal costs. An application of urine
corresponding to around 100% to 125% of the calculated optimum N requirements of the planted
crops is recommended and the amount of urine applied during the rainy season can be slightly
increased since it is assumed that some of the nutrients might be washed out during periodic
rainfalls.
It is furthermore suggested to conduct follow-up studies in the same study locations in order to
further consolidate the existing data and particularly to investigate potential differences with urine
application during the dry season.
References
JOENSSON, H., RICHERT A., VINNERAAS, B., SALOMON, E. (2004): Guidelines on the Use
of Urine and Faeces in Crop Production, Stockholm, Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI),
EcoSanRes Publication Series, Report 2004-2
PUVEP (2008): Philippine Allotment Garden Manual with an Introduction to Ecological Sanitation,
Peri-Urban Vegetable Project, Xavier University College of Agriculture, Cagayan de Oro,
Philippines, http://puvep.xu.edu.ph/publications/AG%20Booklet_final.pdf
RICHERT, A., GENSCH, R., JOENSSON, H., STENSTROEM, T.-A., DAGERSKOG, L. (2010):
Practical Guidance on the Use ofUrine in Crop Production: EcoSanResProgramme, Stockholm
Environment Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
WHO (2006): Guidelines for Safe Use Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater, Volume 4: Excreta and
Greywater Use in Agriculture, Geneva, World Health Organisation