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Point-Contact Transistor – 
first transistor ever made
The Wonder child of electronics By 
AJAL.A.J ( ASSISTANT PROFESSOR) 
ECE DEPARTMENT 
MAIL: ec2reach@gmail.com 
MOB: 8907305642
What is a transistor? 
A transistor is a 3 terminal electronic device made of 
semiconductor material. 
Transistors have many uses, including amplification, 
switching, voltage regulation, and the modulation of 
signals
This session will help you to 
understand the, 
1.Evolution of transistor 
2.Importance of transistor 
3.Definition & transistor types 
4.Transistor symbol & operation 
5.Advantages of transistor 
6.Latest in transistor technology
History of transistors 
In 1906, an American inventor and physicist, 
Lee De Forest, made the vacuum tube 
triode or audion as he called it. 
 Used in radios 
 Used in early computers
Interesting story… 
Picture shows the workbench of John 
Bardeen (Stocker Professor at OU) and 
Walter Brattain at Bell Laboratories. They 
were supposed to be doing fundamental 
research about crystal surfaces. 
The experimental results hadn't been 
very good, though, and there's a rumor that 
their boss, William Shockley, came near to 
canceling the project. But in 1947, working 
alone, they switched to using tremendously 
pure materials. 
It dawned on them that they could 
build the circuit in the picture. It was a 
working amplifier! John and Walter 
submitted a patent for the first working point 
contact transistor.
Interesting story… 
Shockley was furious and took their 
work and invented the junction transistor 
and submitted a patent for it 9 days later. 
The three shared a Nobel Prize in 1955. 
Bardeen and Brattain continued in 
research (and Bardeen later won another 
Nobel). 
Shockley quit to start a 
semiconductor company in Palo Alto. It 
folded, but its staff went on to invent the 
integrated circuit (the "chip") and to 
found Intel Corporation. 
By 1960, all important computers used 
transistors for logic, and ferrite cores for 
memory.
Qualitative basic operation of point-contact 
transistor 
Problems with first transistor…
First Bipolar Junction Transistors 
W. Shockley invented the p-n junction transistor 
The physically relevant region is moved to the bulk of the material
Moore’s Law 
It’s an observation made by Gordon E. Moore, in 
which he predicted that the number of transistors, 
inside an Integrated Circuit, could 
be doubled every 24 months. 
At the density that also 
minimized the cost of a transistor.
Transistor Definition 
Transistor is an electronic device 
made of three layers of semiconductor 
material that can act as an insulator 
and a conductor. 
The three layered transistor is also 
known as the bipolar junction 
transistor.
Basic models of BJT
BJTs – Basic Configurations 
pnp BJT npn BJT
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT’s) 
The term bipolar refers to the use of both 
holes and electrons as charge carriers in the 
transistor structure 
 There are two types of BJTs, the NPN and 
PNP
Origin of the names 
the Emitter 'emits' the electrons which pass through 
the device 
the Collector 'collects' them again once they've 
passed through the Base 
...and the Base?...
Transistor operation 
force – voltage/current 
water flow – current 
- amplification
Architecture of BJTs 
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is 
constructed with three doped semiconductor 
regions separated by two pn junctions 
Regions are called emitter, base and collector
Basic construction
Architecture of BJTs 
There are two types of BJTs, the npn and pnp 
The two junctions are termed the base-emitter junction 
and the base-collector junction 
The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and 
electrons as charge carriers in the transistor structure 
In order for the transistor to operate properly, the two 
junctions must have the correct dc bias voltages 
the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward 
biased(>=0.7V for Si, >=0.3V for Ge) 
the base-collector (BC) junction is reverse biased
Regions of a transistor 
A transistor has three regions namely, 
Emitter- heavily doped 
Base- lightly doped 
Collector- moderately doped
Transistor symbols Transistor symbols
How does IC vary with VCE for various IB? 
Note that both dc sources are variable 
Set VBB to establish a certain IB
Transistor biasing 
 The base-emitter (BE) junction is forward biased 
The base-collector (BC) junction is reverse biased. 
IE=IB+IC
• Output current can toggle between large and small 
(Switching  Digital logic; create 0s and 1s)
Operating regions of BJT 
Cut off region 
Linear region 
Saturation region
Types of transistor 
BJT - Bipolar Junction Transistor 
UJT- Unipolar Junction Transistor 
FET - Field Effect Transistor 
MOS - Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Basic circuits of BJT
Operation of BJTs 
BJT will operates in one of following four region 
Cutoff region (for digital circuit) 
Saturation region (for digital circuit) 
Linear (active) region (to be an amplifier) 
Breakdown region (always be a disaster)
DC Analysis of BJTs 
Transistor Currents: IE = IC + IB 
alpha (aDC) IC = aDCIE 
beta (bDC) IC = bDCIB 
bDC typically has a value between 20 and 200
DC Analysis of BJTs 
DC voltages for the biased 
transistor: 
Collector voltage 
VC = VCC - ICRC 
Base voltage 
VB = VE + VBE 
for silicon transistors, VBE = 0.7 V 
for germanium transistors, VBE = 0.3 V
Q-point 
The base current, IB, is established by the base 
bias 
The point at which the base current curve 
intersects the dc load line is the quiescent or Q-point 
for the circuit
Q-point
DC Analysis of BJTs 
The voltage divider 
biasing is widely used 
Input resistance is: 
RIN @ bDCRE 
The base voltage is 
approximately: 
VB @ VCCR2/(R1+R2)
BJT as an amplifier 
Class A Amplifiers 
Class B Amplifiers
Class A Amplifiers
BJT Class A Amplifiers 
In a class A amplifier, the transistor conducts for the 
full cycle of the input signal (360°) 
used in low-power applications 
The transistor is operated in the active region, 
between saturation and cutoff 
saturation is when both junctions are forward biased 
the transistor is in cutoff when IB = 0 
The load line is drawn on the collector curves between 
saturation and cutoff
BJT Class A Amplifiers
BJT Class A Amplifiers 
Three biasing mode for class A amplifiers 
common-emitter (CE) amplifier 
common-collector (CC) amplifier 
common-base (CB) amplifier
BJT Class A Amplifiers 
A common-emitter (CE) amplifier 
capacitors are used for coupling ac without disturbing dc 
levels
BJT Class A Amplifiers 
A common-collector (CC) amplifier 
voltage gain is approximately 1, but current gain is 
greater than 1
BJT Class A Amplifiers 
BJT Class A Amplifiers 
The third configuration is the common-base (CB) 
the base is the grounded (common) terminal 
the input signal is applied to the emitter 
output signal is taken off the collector 
output is in-phase with the input 
voltage gain is greater than 1 
current gain is always less than 1
BJT Class B Amplifiers
BJT Class B Amplifiers 
When an amplifier is biased such that it operates in the 
linear region for 180° of the input cycle and is in cutoff for 
180°, it is a class B amplifier 
A class B amplifier is more efficient than a class A 
In order to get a linear reproduction of the input 
waveform, the class B amplifier is configured in a push-pull 
arrangement 
The transistors in a class B amplifier must be biased 
above cutoff to eliminate crossover distortion
The BJT as a Switch 
When used as an electronic switch, a transistor 
normally is operated alternately in cutoff and 
saturation 
A transistor is in cutoff when the base-emitter junction 
is not forward-biased. VCE is approximately equal to VCC 
When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and 
there is enough base current to produce a maximum 
collector current, the transistor is saturated
The BJT as a Switch
An example -- NOR
Transistor applications 
Transistor as a switch 
When used as an electronic switch, the transistor is 
normally operated alternately in cut-off and 
saturation regions.
Transistor as amplifier 
Due to the small changes in 
base current the collector 
current will mimic the input 
with greater amplitude
Future of Transistors 
Molecular electronics 
Carbon nanotube transistors 
Nano inspiration wire transistors 
Quantum computing 
CMOS devices will add functionality to CMOS non-volatile 
memory, opto-electronics, sensing…. 
CMOS technology will address new markets 
macroelectronics, bio-medical devices, … 
Biology may provide for new technologies bottom-up 
assembly, human intelligence
What’s new in transistor technology? 
3D Transistor made using 
Tri-Gate transistors on its 22nm logic 
technology. 
Advantage of Tri-Gate Transistors 
·More than 50% power reduction at 
constant performance. 
·37% performance increase at low voltage 
·Improved performance and efficiency.
BJTs – Practical Aspects
BJTs – Practical Aspects 
Heat sink
BJTs – Testing
BJTs – Testing
 TRANSISTORS

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TRANSISTORS

  • 1. Point-Contact Transistor – first transistor ever made
  • 2. The Wonder child of electronics By AJAL.A.J ( ASSISTANT PROFESSOR) ECE DEPARTMENT MAIL: ec2reach@gmail.com MOB: 8907305642
  • 3. What is a transistor? A transistor is a 3 terminal electronic device made of semiconductor material. Transistors have many uses, including amplification, switching, voltage regulation, and the modulation of signals
  • 4. This session will help you to understand the, 1.Evolution of transistor 2.Importance of transistor 3.Definition & transistor types 4.Transistor symbol & operation 5.Advantages of transistor 6.Latest in transistor technology
  • 5. History of transistors In 1906, an American inventor and physicist, Lee De Forest, made the vacuum tube triode or audion as he called it.  Used in radios  Used in early computers
  • 6. Interesting story… Picture shows the workbench of John Bardeen (Stocker Professor at OU) and Walter Brattain at Bell Laboratories. They were supposed to be doing fundamental research about crystal surfaces. The experimental results hadn't been very good, though, and there's a rumor that their boss, William Shockley, came near to canceling the project. But in 1947, working alone, they switched to using tremendously pure materials. It dawned on them that they could build the circuit in the picture. It was a working amplifier! John and Walter submitted a patent for the first working point contact transistor.
  • 7. Interesting story… Shockley was furious and took their work and invented the junction transistor and submitted a patent for it 9 days later. The three shared a Nobel Prize in 1955. Bardeen and Brattain continued in research (and Bardeen later won another Nobel). Shockley quit to start a semiconductor company in Palo Alto. It folded, but its staff went on to invent the integrated circuit (the "chip") and to found Intel Corporation. By 1960, all important computers used transistors for logic, and ferrite cores for memory.
  • 8.
  • 9. Qualitative basic operation of point-contact transistor Problems with first transistor…
  • 10. First Bipolar Junction Transistors W. Shockley invented the p-n junction transistor The physically relevant region is moved to the bulk of the material
  • 11. Moore’s Law It’s an observation made by Gordon E. Moore, in which he predicted that the number of transistors, inside an Integrated Circuit, could be doubled every 24 months. At the density that also minimized the cost of a transistor.
  • 12. Transistor Definition Transistor is an electronic device made of three layers of semiconductor material that can act as an insulator and a conductor. The three layered transistor is also known as the bipolar junction transistor.
  • 14. BJTs – Basic Configurations pnp BJT npn BJT
  • 15. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT’s) The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and electrons as charge carriers in the transistor structure  There are two types of BJTs, the NPN and PNP
  • 16. Origin of the names the Emitter 'emits' the electrons which pass through the device the Collector 'collects' them again once they've passed through the Base ...and the Base?...
  • 17. Transistor operation force – voltage/current water flow – current - amplification
  • 18. Architecture of BJTs The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated by two pn junctions Regions are called emitter, base and collector
  • 20. Architecture of BJTs There are two types of BJTs, the npn and pnp The two junctions are termed the base-emitter junction and the base-collector junction The term bipolar refers to the use of both holes and electrons as charge carriers in the transistor structure In order for the transistor to operate properly, the two junctions must have the correct dc bias voltages the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward biased(>=0.7V for Si, >=0.3V for Ge) the base-collector (BC) junction is reverse biased
  • 21. Regions of a transistor A transistor has three regions namely, Emitter- heavily doped Base- lightly doped Collector- moderately doped
  • 23.
  • 24.
  • 25. How does IC vary with VCE for various IB? Note that both dc sources are variable Set VBB to establish a certain IB
  • 26. Transistor biasing  The base-emitter (BE) junction is forward biased The base-collector (BC) junction is reverse biased. IE=IB+IC
  • 27. • Output current can toggle between large and small (Switching  Digital logic; create 0s and 1s)
  • 28. Operating regions of BJT Cut off region Linear region Saturation region
  • 29. Types of transistor BJT - Bipolar Junction Transistor UJT- Unipolar Junction Transistor FET - Field Effect Transistor MOS - Metal Oxide Semiconductor
  • 31. Operation of BJTs BJT will operates in one of following four region Cutoff region (for digital circuit) Saturation region (for digital circuit) Linear (active) region (to be an amplifier) Breakdown region (always be a disaster)
  • 32.
  • 33. DC Analysis of BJTs Transistor Currents: IE = IC + IB alpha (aDC) IC = aDCIE beta (bDC) IC = bDCIB bDC typically has a value between 20 and 200
  • 34. DC Analysis of BJTs DC voltages for the biased transistor: Collector voltage VC = VCC - ICRC Base voltage VB = VE + VBE for silicon transistors, VBE = 0.7 V for germanium transistors, VBE = 0.3 V
  • 35. Q-point The base current, IB, is established by the base bias The point at which the base current curve intersects the dc load line is the quiescent or Q-point for the circuit
  • 37. DC Analysis of BJTs The voltage divider biasing is widely used Input resistance is: RIN @ bDCRE The base voltage is approximately: VB @ VCCR2/(R1+R2)
  • 38. BJT as an amplifier Class A Amplifiers Class B Amplifiers
  • 40. BJT Class A Amplifiers In a class A amplifier, the transistor conducts for the full cycle of the input signal (360°) used in low-power applications The transistor is operated in the active region, between saturation and cutoff saturation is when both junctions are forward biased the transistor is in cutoff when IB = 0 The load line is drawn on the collector curves between saturation and cutoff
  • 41. BJT Class A Amplifiers
  • 42. BJT Class A Amplifiers Three biasing mode for class A amplifiers common-emitter (CE) amplifier common-collector (CC) amplifier common-base (CB) amplifier
  • 43. BJT Class A Amplifiers A common-emitter (CE) amplifier capacitors are used for coupling ac without disturbing dc levels
  • 44. BJT Class A Amplifiers A common-collector (CC) amplifier voltage gain is approximately 1, but current gain is greater than 1
  • 45. BJT Class A Amplifiers BJT Class A Amplifiers The third configuration is the common-base (CB) the base is the grounded (common) terminal the input signal is applied to the emitter output signal is taken off the collector output is in-phase with the input voltage gain is greater than 1 current gain is always less than 1
  • 46. BJT Class B Amplifiers
  • 47. BJT Class B Amplifiers When an amplifier is biased such that it operates in the linear region for 180° of the input cycle and is in cutoff for 180°, it is a class B amplifier A class B amplifier is more efficient than a class A In order to get a linear reproduction of the input waveform, the class B amplifier is configured in a push-pull arrangement The transistors in a class B amplifier must be biased above cutoff to eliminate crossover distortion
  • 48.
  • 49. The BJT as a Switch When used as an electronic switch, a transistor normally is operated alternately in cutoff and saturation A transistor is in cutoff when the base-emitter junction is not forward-biased. VCE is approximately equal to VCC When the base-emitter junction is forward-biased and there is enough base current to produce a maximum collector current, the transistor is saturated
  • 50. The BJT as a Switch
  • 52. Transistor applications Transistor as a switch When used as an electronic switch, the transistor is normally operated alternately in cut-off and saturation regions.
  • 53. Transistor as amplifier Due to the small changes in base current the collector current will mimic the input with greater amplitude
  • 54. Future of Transistors Molecular electronics Carbon nanotube transistors Nano inspiration wire transistors Quantum computing CMOS devices will add functionality to CMOS non-volatile memory, opto-electronics, sensing…. CMOS technology will address new markets macroelectronics, bio-medical devices, … Biology may provide for new technologies bottom-up assembly, human intelligence
  • 55. What’s new in transistor technology? 3D Transistor made using Tri-Gate transistors on its 22nm logic technology. Advantage of Tri-Gate Transistors ·More than 50% power reduction at constant performance. ·37% performance increase at low voltage ·Improved performance and efficiency.
  • 57. BJTs – Practical Aspects Heat sink