01 engineering materials

-Engineering Materials-
© Rohan Desai- Automobile Department - New Polytechnic, Kolhapur. Page 1
INTRODUCTION
Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us
realize. Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and
food production -virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to
one degree or another by materials. In fact, early civilizations have been
designated by the level of their materials development (Stone Age, Bronze
Age, and Iron Age).
The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of
materials, those that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on.
With time they discovered techniques for producing materials that had
properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new materials included
pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that the
properties of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by the
addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally a
selection process that involved deciding from a given, rather limited set of
materials the one best suited for an application by virtue of its characteristics.
It was not until relatively recent times that scientists came to understand the
relationships between the structural elements of materials and their
properties. This knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 100 years,
has empowered them to fashion, to a large degree, the characteristics of
materials. Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved with
rather specialized characteristics that meet the needs of our modern and
complex society; these include metals, plastics, glasses, and fibers.
The development of many technologies has been associated with the
accessibility of suitable materials. For example, automobiles would not have
been possible without the availability of inexpensive steel and electronic
devices rely on components that are made from semiconducting materials.

Q. Give classification of engineering materials.
Q. Classify various properties of materials with examples.
All important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six
different categories: Mechanical, Electrical, Thermal, Magnetic, Optical, and
Deteriorative. For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of
provoking different responses.
Category Stimulus Example
Mechanical Force Strength, ductility
Electrical Electric field Electrical conductivity
Thermal Heat Thermal conductivity
Magnetic Magnetic field Magnetic flux
Optical Radiation Index of refraction
Deteriorative Chemical reaction Corrosion resistance

Q. Define the mechanical properties.
STRENGTH
It is the ability to withstand the force to which it is subjected. It is
termed as shear strength, tensile strength, and compressive strength. Unit of
strength is N/mm2
Typical tensile strength values of some important materials are given below:
Structural Steel 400 N/mm2
Grey Cast Iron 170 N/mm2
ELASTICITY
Elasticity is that property of a material which enables it to regain its
original shape and size after load is removed.
PLASTICITY
The plasticity of a material is its ability to be permanently deformed
without rupture or failure. Plastic deformation will take place only after the
elastic range has been exceeded.
DUCTILITY
Ductility is that property of a material which enables it to draw out into
thin wire. Mild steel is a ductile material. The percent elongation and the
reduction in area in tension are often used as measure of ductility.
MALLEABILITY
Malleability of a material is its ability to be flattened into thin sheets
without cracking by hot or cold working. Aluminium, copper, tin, lead, steel,
etc. are malleable metals.
TOUGHNESS
Toughness is a property of metal by virtue of which it can absorb
maximum energy before actual fracture or failure takes place. For example, if
a load is suddenly applied to a piece of mild steel and then to a piece of glass,
the mild steel will absorb much more energy before failure occurs. Thus mild
steel is much tougher than a glass.

HARDNESS
Hardness is defined as the ability of a material to resist to scratching,
abrasion, cutting, indentation, or penetration. Many methods are now in use
for determining the hardness of a material. They are Brinell, Rockwell and
Vickers.
BRITTLENESS
The brittleness of a material is the property of breaking without much
permanent distortion. There are many materials which break or fail before
much deformation takes place. Such materials are brittle, e.g. glass, cast iron.
Therefore a non-ductile material is said to be brittle material.
RESILIENCE
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy elastically. On
removal of the load, the energy stored is given off exactly as in spring when
the load is removed.
CREEP
Creep can be defined as the slow and progressive deformation of a
material with time under a constant stress at temperatures approximately
above 0.4 Tm (where Tm is the melting point of the metal or alloy in degrees
Kelvin).
FATIGUE
When subjected to fluctuating (repeated) loads, the material tends to
develop a characteristic behavior which is different than that under steady
load. This behavior is called as fatigue.
Q. List the ferrous metals and their alloys.
Metals:-
1. Pig iron
2. Wrought iron
3. Pure iron
Alloys:-
1. Cast iron
2. Alloy Cast iron

3. Carbon Steel
4. Alloy Steel
Q. Write short note on the Pig iron.
All iron and steel products are derived originally from pig iron. This is
the raw material obtained from the chemical reduction of iron ore in a blast
furnace. The main raw materials required for pig iron are: (1) iron ore, (2)
cooking coal, and (3) flux.
Iron ores are generally carbonates, hydrates or oxides of the metal, the
latter being the best.
The coke used in the blast furnace should be a very high class hard
coke obtained from good quality coking coals containing as low phosphorus
and sulphur as possible.
Flux combines with the ashes of the fuel and the ore to form fusible
products which separate from the metal as slag. The most commonly used
blast furnace flux is limestone.
Q. Write short note on wrought iron.
It is a highly refined iron with a small amount of slag forged out into fibres.
It is produced by remelting pig iron in a puddling furnace. It is the purest
form of pig iron. The chemical analysis of the metal shows as much as 99 %
of iron.
Properties:
It is ductile when cold.
It is good corrosion resistant than mild steel.
It is tough, malleable and has high tensile strength.
It can not be melted but can be forged.
It can be easily welded.
Applications: Bolts, nuts, chains, Pipe & its fittings, sheets, plates, crane hook
and boiler tubes.
Q. Give short note on Cast irons.
Cast irons are basically the alloys of iron and carbon in which the
carbon content varies between 2 to 6.67 %. Commercial cast irons are
complex in composition and contain carbon in the range of 2.3 to 3.75 % with

other elements such as silicon, phosphorous, sulphur and manganese in
substantial amount.
Properties:
Poor ductility and malleability, they can not be forged, rolled, drawn, or
pressed into desired shape, but are formed by melting and casting to the
required final shape and size.
Characteristics:
1. They are the cheapest amongst the commercial alloys.
2. They are easier to melt due to their lower melting temperature
(1150-1250 0
C) as compared to steels (1350-1500 0
C).
3. They can be easily cast due to high fluidity of melt and low
shrinkage during solidification.
4. Their corrosion resistance is fairly good.
5. In general, they are brittle and their mechanical properties are
inferior to steels.
Q. Give classifications of Cast iron on various bases.
Cast irons are classified according to various criteria as below:
(a) On the basis of furnace used in their manufacture:
(1) Cupola cast irons
(2) Air furnace cast irons
(3) Electric furnace cast irons
(4) Duplex cast irons
(b) On the basis of composition and purity:
(1) Low carbon, low silicon cast irons
(2) High carbon, low sulphur cast irons
(3) Nickel alloy cast irons
(c) On the basis of microstructure and appearance of fracture:
(1) Grey cast irons
(2) White cast irons
(3) Malleable cast irons
(4) Nodular cast irons

(5) Mottled cast irons
(6) Chilled cast irons
Table showing typical composition of irons & Cast Irons
Material Carbon Silicon Manganese Sulphur Phosphorous
Pig Iron
3.0 to 4.0 0.5 to 3.0 0.1 to 1.0
0.02 to
0.1
0.03 to 2.0
Wrought
iron
0.02 to
0.08
0.1 to 0.2 0.02 to 0.1
0.02 to
0.04
0.05 to 0.2
Grey cast
iron
2.50-3.75 1.00-2.50 0.40-1.00 0.06-0.12 0.10-1.00
White cast
iron
1.75-2.30 0.85-1.20 0.10-0.40 0.12-0.35 0.05-0.20
Malleable
cast iron
2.20-3.60 0.40-1.10 0.10-0.40 0.03-0.30 0.10-0.20
Q. Write process, characteristic and applications of Grey C. I.
Process:
Grey cast iron is obtained by melting pig iron, coke and steel scrap in a
cupola furnace and allowing it to cool and solidify slowly. While solidifying, the
iron contains carbon in the form of graphite flakes. It has a dull grey
crystalline or granular structure and a strong light will give a glistering effect
due to reflection of the free graphite flakes. In tension, the ultimate tensile
strength is 120-300 N/mm2
while in compression it is 600-750 N/mm2
Characteristics:
(a) They have excellent damping capacity
(b) Cheaply available
(c) Low melting temperature (between 1150 to 1200 0
C)
(d) Good machinability and Graphite on the surface acts as lubricant
Applications: Grey cast irons are widely used for machine bases,
engine frames, drainage pipes, and elevator counter weights, pump
housings, cylinders and pistons of I.C. engines, fly wheels, etc.

Q. Write process, characteristics and applications of White C. I.
Process:
White cast iron is obtained by melting pig iron, coke and steel scrap in a
cupola furnace and allowing it to cool and solidify rapidly. While solidifying,
the iron contains carbon in the form of iron carbide. (Cementite- Fe3C
compound)
Characteristics:
(a) White cast iron is very hard, brittle and wear resistant.
(b) Its fractured surface appears white because of absence of graphite and
hence the name white cast iron.
(c) It has poor machinability and mechanical properties.
Application: wearing plates, road roller surface, grinding balls, dies and
extrusion nozzles. White cast irons are widely used for making
malleable cast iron.
Q. Write the process, characteristics and applications of malleable
C.I.
Process:
These are produced from white cast irons by malleabilizing heat treatment.
The heat treatment consists heating the white cast iron slowly to a temp. at
around 9000
c and holding at this temp. for long time followed by cooling to
room temperature.

Fig: Malleablizing heat treatment cycle
Upto 1= heating
1-2 = holding period= cementite converted into graphite in rosset form
2-3= moderate cooling= gets pearlitic malleable cast iron
2-3’= slow cooling= gets ferritic malleable cast iron
Properties: Good mechanical properties like ductility and malleability
Applications: connecting rods, transmission gears, differential cases,
flanges, pipe fittings, valve parts, marine services.
Q. Write process, properties and applications of Nodular C. I.
Process:
These cast irons contain graphite in the form of nodules or spheroids. These
are produced from grey cast iron by addition of small quantity of magnesium
or cerium just before pouring. Due to this addition, instead of graphite flakes,
spheroids are formed.
Properties: Good mechanical properties like ductility and malleability
Applications: Valves pump bodies, crankshafts, gears, and other
automotive and machine components.
Q. Write short note on mottled and chilled C.I.
MOTTLED CAST IRON
These cast irons show free cementite as well as graphite flakes in their
microstructure. For certain compositions, particularly in terms of carbon and
silicon content, such structures are observed under the existing conditions of
cooling. For a given composition, faster cooling gives white structure and slow
cooling results in gray structure. For intermediate cooling rates, mottled
structure is observed. Hence, mottled structure is also observed in certain
region between the surface and centre of a chilled casting. Mottled structures
do not have good properties and should be avoided.
CHILLED CAST IRON
Process:
This type of cast iron shows white structure at surface and gray structure in
the centre. The composition of melt is adjusted in such a manner that rapid
cooling gives white structure and usual cooling gives gray structure.

Properties: hardness, wear resistance, machinability, damping capacity
and low notch sensitivity
Applications: railway-freight-car wheels, crushing roll, grinding balls,
road rollers, hammers and dies.

MICROSTRUCTURES OF VARIOUS CAST IRONS
Fig (a): Grey cast iron (the dark
graphite flakes are embedded in α
ferrite matrix)
Fig (b): Nodular cast iron (the dark
graphite nodules are surrounded by α
ferrite matrix)
Fig (c): White cast iron (the light
cementite regions are surrounded by
pearlite)
Fig (d): Malleable cast iron (dark
graphite rosettes in α ferrite
matrix)

Q. Write short note on plain carbon steel.
(A) Low Carbon Steels:
Composition: 0.008% to 0.30% Carbon and remaining iron with
impurities.
Properties: They are soft, ductile, malleable, tough, machinable,
weldable and non-hardenable by heat treatment.
Applications: Steel with 0.008% to 0.15% carbon are used for
fabrication work. For example wires, nails, rivets and screws. Steels
with 0.15% to 0.30% carbon are widely used as structural steels (mild
steel) and finds applications as building bars, grills, beams, angles,
channels, etc.
(B) Medium Carbon Steels:
impurities.
Properties: They are medium hard, not so ductile and malleable,
medium tough, slightly difficult to machine, weld and harden. They are
also called as Machinery Steels.
Applications: They are used for bolts, axles, lock washers, large forging
dies, springs, wires, wheel spokes, hammers, rods, turbine rotors,
crank pins, cylinder liners, railway rails and railway tyres.
(C) High Carbon Steels:
impurities.
Properties: They are hard, wear resistant, brittle, difficult to machine,
difficult to weld and can be hardened by heat treatment. The hardness
produced after hardening is high. They are also called as Tool steels.
Applications: They are used for forging dies, punches, hammers,
chisels, vice jaws, shear blades, drills, knives, razor blades, balls and
races for ball bearings, mandrels, cutters, files, wire drawing dies,
reamers, and metal cutting saws.

Q. What are effects of alloying elements on properties of steel?
Molybdenum promotes hardenability, increases tensile and creep strength at
high temperature.
Chromium improves corrosion resistance, toughness and hardenability.
Nickel provides toughness, corrosion resistance, and deep hardening.
Silicon increases strength without decreasing ductility and resists high
temperature oxidation.
Tungsten increases hardenability, wear and abrasion resistance. It reduces
the tendency of decarburization.
Q. What do you mean by alloy steels and explain any one of them?
Alloy steel may be defined as steel to which elements other than
carbon are added in sufficient amount to produce an improvement in
properties. The chief alloying elements used in steel are nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, cobalt, vanadium, manganese, silicon, tungsten.
Alloying elements are added in steel for the following purpose:
1. To improve elasticity.
2. To improve corrosion and fatigue resistance.
3. To improve hardness, toughness and tensile strength.
STAINLESS STEEL
Composition Range of Stainless Steel
Class C% Cr% Ni% Uses
Ferritic 0.1 to 0.25 16 to 30 — Dairy components,
kitchen- ware, automobile
fittings
Martensitic 0.1 to 0.7 10 to 25 — Turbine blades, ball
bearings table cutlery.
Austenitic 0.08 to
0.25
15 to 25 5 to 25 Tableware, cutlery,
chemical plants,
ornamental goods.

Properties:
High ductility, weldability, machinability and formability
Good mechanical properties at low and high temperatures
It has good creep resistance, surface finish and appearance
TOOL STEELS
The selection of proper tool depends upon many factors like the
operation to be performed, characteristics of material to be cut, machine tool
to be used and rate of cutting. The society of automotive engineers has
classified tool steels into the following six major groups.
1. Water hardening tool steels
2. Shock resistant tool steels
3. Cold working tool steels
4. Hot working tool steels
5. High speed steels
6. Special purpose tool steels.
Water hardening tool steels: These are used for files, twist drills,
chisels, hammers, etc.
Shock resistant tool steel: These steels are used for coal cutter picks,
cold chisels, pneumatic chisels and punches.
Cold working tool steels: These are used in master tools, gauges, dies.
They are also for twist drills, taps milling cutters, drawing dies, boring tools.
Hot working steels: It is used for hot drawing, hot forging and
extrusion dies for casting aluminium, brass, zinc, and their alloys.
Special purpose tool steels: These steels are used for special purposes
like stainless and heat resisting components.
HEAT RESISTING STEELS
Composition: 23 to 30% chromium, carbon less than 0.35% and
remaining steel.
Properties: Heat resisting steels are those which are particularly
suitable for working at high temperatures. This steel provides a useful
combination of nonscaling and strength-retaining properties together

with resistance to acid corrosion comparable with that of stainless
steels.
Applications: Furnace parts and annealing boxes
SHOCK RESISTING STEELS
Composition: 0.50% carbon, 2.25% tungsten, 1.50% chromium and
0.25% vanadium.
Properties: They resist shock and severe fatigue stresses.
Applications: Leaf and coil springs.
Q. How C. I. and steels are designated as per IS?
Cast iron
IS code designation contains following:
1. Symbols indicating the type of casting.
2. Symbols for mechanical properties,
CS-Steel castings: CS1250: Unalloyed steel castings with minimum tensile
strength 1250 N/mm2
.
FG -Grey iron casting: FG 150: Grey iron casting with minimum tensile
strength 150 N/mm2
Steels
According to IS, steels are designated on two criteria:
1. Steels designated on the basis of mechanical properties.
2. Steels designated on the basis of chemical compositions.
Steels designated on the basis of mechanical properties.
The code designation shall consist of the following in the order given:
1. Symbol Fe' or FeE' depending on whether the steel has been specified on
the basis of minimum tensile strength or yield strength.
2. Figure indicating the minimum tensile strength or yield stress in N/mm2
.
3. Chemical symbols for elements the presence of which characterize the
steels.
4. Symbol indicating special characteristics covering method of deoxidation,
steel quality, surface condition, weld-ability, formability, etc.
Fe 410: steel with a minimum tensile strength of 410 N/mm2
.
FeE 270: steel with a minimum yield strength of 270 N/mm2

Steels designated on the basis of chemical composition
(a) Unalloyed steels
1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon
2. Letter C
3. Figures indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese content.
The result shall be rounded off to the nearest integer.
4. Symbol indicating special characteristics.
45 C 10 G: Steel with average 0.45 per cent carbon, 1 per cent manganese
and guaranteed hardenability.
(b) Unalloyed tool steels
The designation shall contain of:
1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.
2. Symbol T' for tool steel.
3. Figure indicating 10 times the average per cent manganese content.
75 T 5: Unalloyed tool steel with average 0.75 per cent carbon and 0.5
percent manganese.
(c)Low and medium alloy steels (total alloying elements not exceeding
10%)
The designation of steels consists of
1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.
2. Chemical symbols for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its
average percentage content multiplied by a factor as given below.
Element Multiplying factor
Cr, Ni, Mn, Si and W 4
Mo: 10
P,S,N: 100
3. Symbol indicating special characteristics.
25Cr4Mo2G: Steel with guaranteed hardenability and having average 0.25
per cent carbon, 1 per cent chromium and 0.25 per cent molybdenum.

(d)High alloy steels (total alloying elements more than 10 per cent).
1. Letter 'X'
2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage carbon content.
3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its
average percentage content.
4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to attain the desired
properties.
5. Symbol indicating specific characteristics.
X 10 Cr 18 Ni 9 S 3: Steel in pickled condition with average carbon
0.10 per cent, chromium 18 per cent and nickel 9 percent and Sulphar 3% .
(e)Alloy tool steels
The steel designation shall be as for low, medium and high alloy steels as
given above except that the symbol T' will be included in the beginning of the
designation of low alloy and medium alloy tool steels and 'XT' instead of X' in
the case of high alloy tool steels.
XT 75 W 18 Cr 4 V1: high alloy steel with average carbon 0.75 %, Tungsten
18%, chromium 4 % and vanadium 1%.
Q. Why nonferrous metals are used?
Nonferrous metals are used for the following reasons:
1. Resistance to corrosion.
2. Special electrical and magnetic properties.
3. Softness and facility of cold working.
4. Low density.
5. Attractive colour.
Q. write short note on Aluminium.
Aluminium
Aluminium is a white metal produced by electrical processes from its
oxide (Alumina) which is prepared from a mineral called Bauxite. In India, it is
chiefly available in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Tamilnadu.

Properties:
1. It is light in weight (Specific gravity 2.7)
2. It has very good thermal and electrical conductivity. On weight to
weight basis, it carries more electricity than copper.
3. It has excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance.
Applications: Cooking utensils, electrical conductors, food containers,
ashtrays, bicycles, motorcycles, trucks and buses, aeroplanes and
marine vessels.
Q. Explain any one of the alloy of aluminium.
Duralumin
Composition: 3.5-4.5%Cu, 0.4-0.7%Mn, 0.4-0.7%Mg and aluminium
the remainder.
Properties: High tensile strength, high electric conductivity, very hard
and can be easily forged.
Application: It is widely used in wrought condition for forging,
stampings, bars, sheets, tubes and rivets.
Y-alloy
Composition: 4%Cu, 2%Ni and 1.5%Mg.
Properties: This alloy has the characteristic of retaining good strength
at high temperatures.
Application: Piston and other components of aero engines. It is also
largely used in the form of sheets and strips
Q. Write the properties and applications of copper.
Properties:
1. It has good ductility and malleability.
2. It has high electrical and thermal conductivity.
3. It is non magnetic and has a pleasing reddish colour.
4. It has fairly good corrosion resistance to general atmospheric
conditions.
Applications: Electrical conductors, bus bars, automobile radiators,
roofing, pressure vessels, kettles and utensils.

Q. How copper alloys are classified? Explain them briefly.
1. BRASSES:
Brasses are the alloys of copper and zinc. Brasses are classified either
on the basis of structure i.e. α-brasses and α-β brasses or colour i.e. red
brasses and yellow brasses.
α- brasses contain zinc less than 30% and α - β brasses contain zinc
between 30 to 44%. Below 20% zinc, the colour of brasses is red and above
20% zinc, the colour is yellow.
(1) α-Brasses
They are soft, ductile, and malleable and have fairly good corrosion
resistance in annealed condition. All the a-brasses are suitable for cold rolling,
wire drawing, press work, and such other operations. Some of the important
brasses from this group are as below:
(i) Cap copper:
Composition: 2 to 5% Zinc and remaining Copper.
Properties: Zinc is used as a deoxidizer for the deoxidation of copper.
If zinc is not added, copper oxide present in the structure reduces
ductility and malleability.
Applications: caps of detonators in ammunition factories.
(ii) Gilding metals:
Composition: 5 to 15% Zinc and Copper remainder.
Properties: They have different shades of colour from reddish to
yellowish according to the zinc content.
Applications: Bullet envelopes, drawn containers, condenser tubes,
coins, needles and dress jewellery.
(iii) Cartridge brass: (70-30 Brass)
Composition: 30% zinc and Copper remainder.
Properties: It has maximum ductility and malleability amongst all the
brasses.
Application: Cartridge cases, radiator fins, lamp fixtures, rivets and
springs.

(2) α - β Brasses
Commercial α - β brasses contain zinc between 32 to 40%. Some of
the important brasses from this group are given below:
(i) Muntz metal:
Composition: 40% zinc with balance copper.
Properties: Hot worked 60-40 brass (i.e. Muntz metal) shows good a
tensile strength and hardness.
Application: Utensils, shafts, nuts and bolts, pump parts, condenser
tubes and similar applications where corrosion is not too severe.
(ii) Naval brass:
Composition: 1% tin to Muntz metal.
Properties: Corrosion resistance. The brass is called as naval brass or
Tobin bronze.
Applications: Marine hardware, propeller shafts, piston rods, nuts and
bolts, and welding rods.
(3) Brazing brass
Brass with 50-50 composition is used for brazing purpose. The 50%
zinc brass melts at lower temperature (~ 870°C) and can be used for joining
commercial brasses. Since the alloy is brittle, it has no other engineering
application than for brazing purpose.
2. BRONZES:
Bronzes are the alloys of copper containing elements other than zinc.
In these alloys zinc may be present in small amount. Commercially important
bronzes are discussed below:
(i) Aluminium Bronze:
Composition: 4 to 11% aluminium and remaining copper.
Properties:
(a) Good strength, ductility and toughness
(b) Good bearing properties, corrosion and fatigue resistance
Applications: Jewellery, heat exchangers, heavy duty parts, marine
equipments, gear bearings and bushes.

(ii) Tin Bronze:
Composition: 88% Cu, 10% Sn and 2% Zn.
Properties: They have good ductility and malleability. They also have
good corrosion resistance.
Applications: Coins, pumps, gears, heavy load bearings and marine
fittings.
(iii) Gun metal:
Composition: It consists of 2 to 5% of zinc, 5 to 10% of tin and
remainder is copper.
Properties: (a) Corrosion resistant
(b) High tensile strength
(c) Zinc acts as deoxidizer and also improves fluidity of melt.
Applications: Used for gun barrels, ordnance parts, Marine castings,
gears, bearings and steam pipe fittings.
(iv)Phosphor Bronze:
Phosphor bronzes can be divided into two main groups
(a) Cast phosphor bronze
(b) Wrought phosphor bronze
(a) Cast phosphor bronze:
Composition: 5 to 13% phosphorus and remainder as copper.
Properties: It possesses good tensile strength with 5% elongation.
Applications: Bearings, gear wheels, slide valves and gudgeon pins.
(b) Wrought phosphor bronze:
Composition: 2.5 to 8.5% tin, 0.1 to 0.35% phosphorus and remainder
as copper.
Properties: It possesses high strength, good corrosion resistance.
Applications: It is mainly used as a spring.
Q. Write short note on bearing materials or sliding bearings.
These are used in construction of machines, engines or parts of equipment
which requires rotary or reciprocating motions. These materials are used to
transmit loads to a shaft rotating relative to the bearing.
Requirement of bearings:

The friction between bearing and the rotating part should be small.
The affinity between the shaft and the bearing material should be
minimum.
It should be hard and wear resistant. However, it should not be harder
than shaft so as to avoid the damage to the shaft.
It should have high fatigue strength.
Q. Lists the bearing materials and explain White metal alloys
(Babbitts):
White metal alloys
Copper-Lead alloys
Tin bronzes
Aluminium alloys
Grey cast irons
White metal alloys
Composition: 88% tin, 8% antimony and 4% copper.
Properties: It is a soft material with a low coefficient of friction and has
a little strength.
Applications: Babbitt metal makes a fine bearing and does not affect
the shaft very easily when the lubricant fails.
Q. Write short note Polymeric materials.
Polymeric materials include the familiar plastic and rubber materials.
Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon,
hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements; furthermore, they have very large
molecular structures.
Plastics are superior to metals in the following respects.
1. They have good insulating properties.
2. Many plastics are transparent.
3. They possess good colouring properties.
4. They possess good surface finish.
5. Easy formation in different shapes is possible.
6. They possess good corrosion resistance.
Classification of Polymers:

Polymers are broadly classified in to two major groups as below:
(i) Thermoplastic polymers (ii) Thermosetting polymers
(i) Thermoplastic Polymers:
The materials which can be remelted to manufacture fresh new products are
called as thermoplastics.
Properties:
1. They are highly plastic
2. They are easily moulded or shaped.
3. They have low melting point
4. As they can be repeatedly used so they have good resale value.
Applications: Polystyrene, PVC, copper wire insulation, water tubes,
Polyethylene, nursing bottles and ice cube trays.
(ii) Thermosetting Polymers:
Polymers which can be melted once and can not be remelted again are known
as thermosetting plastics.
Examples: Epoxies, Phenolics and formaldehydes.
Epoxy resin:
It is very tough, chemical resistant and transparent with creamy colour.
Use: used in foundry and in transformer as an insulating material.
Phenolics:
It is cheap, strong, rigid and nonconductor of electricity.
Use: Plugs, radio cabinets, knife handles and vacuum cleaner parts.
Urea formaldehyde:
It is hard and brittle.
Use: Cosmetic container, pen bodies and mixer bodies
Q. Write short on Rubbers
1. Natural rubber
2. Synthetic rubber,
Natural rubber: It is generally found in countries which are lying up to 12
degrees on either side of the equator, e.g. South Africa, Malaysia, Singapore,
Mexico, Peru and Sir Lanka. It is found in the juice of many plants, like shrub
quayule, Russian dandelion, milkweed and many other shrubs, vines and

trees. The chief source of rubber is Heveabrassiliencis tree that produces the
best rubber latex. The latex is coagulated by acids or by a smoking operation,
and the resulting spongy mixture is passed through rollers to form a sheet.
This rubber is known as smoked rubber or crude rubber. The crude rubber is
further treated by filters, plasticizers or softeners to produce commercial
rubber.
Synthetic rubber: Synthetic rubber is obtained by suitable combinations of
selected monomers. These rubbers are based on models of natural rubber.
Actually these are synthetic elastomers. Different types of synthetic rubbers
are:
1. Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR)
2. Butyl rubber
3. Nitrile rubber.
Q. Write short note on Ceramics.
Ceramics are inorganic, nonmetallic materials. Most of the ceramic materials
are silicates, aluminates, oxides, carbides, borides and nitrides. Ceramics are
generally classified as
Clay products
Refractories
Glasses
Applications: Tiles, sanitary ware, insulators, semiconductors, fuel elements in
nuclear power plant, cutting tools, concrete and variety of glasses.
Q. Write short note on Composites.
The materials produced by combining two or more materials are known
as composites. The various types of composites used in industry are
1. Whiskers: Whiskers are produced by introducing Al2O3, SiC and Si3N4
materials into resin and metallic materials. Another form of whisker contains
silica fibre coated with aluminium. Whiskers were developed by Rolls Royce
and are widely used in furniture and utensils.
2. Glass fibres or resins: Glass fibers possess good strength while the
polymers have good toughness. The fibres are woven together and pressed
into mats to form the composite.

3. Carbon fiber reinforced plastics: These composites possess properties
similar to glass fibre reinforced resins. They possess lesser density, good
strength and fatigue resistance.

01 engineering materials

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01 engineering materials