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1. COMPOSITE RESINS
INTRODUCTION
Since the birth of dentistry, there have been numerous attempts to
formulate a material and with aesthetic requirements, which would also have
the expected physical, mechanical and biological properties to behave
favourably in the oral environment. The basic requirement for an aesthetic
restorative material is the restoration of an anterior tooth and any extra-orally
visible aspect of a posterior tooth in a manner which has a similar shade and
color in addition to all other visual perceptions as that of the adjacent tooth.
Presently there are five groups of restorative materials under the anterior
restorations banner. These 5 are in addition to the extra-orally fabricated
aesthetic restoratives such as porcelain, cast moldable ceramics and the PFM
restorations. The 5 anterior restoratives are in chronological order, as follows :
i. Silicate cement.
ii. Unfilled Resin.
iii. Filled Resin.
iv. Composite Resin.
v. Glass Ionomer Cements.
History :
Certain clinical characteristics of the synthetic resins viz. tooth like
appearance and insolubility in oral fluids made them superior to the silicate
cements.
1

2. - However after their introduction in the late 1940s and early 1950s following
their initial success, certain drawbacks such as high polymerization
shrinkage and high coefficient of thermal expansion led to their clinical
failures.
- Thus to overcome these deficiencies, which were attributed to the resinous
component, inert filler particles were added in order to reduce the volume
of the resin component. These first attempts to improve the properties by
decreasing shrinkage and thermal expansion did not prove fruitful as further
microscopic defects resulted in the mechanically retained fillers and
surrounding resin. This was because the fillers were not chemically bonded
to the resin matrix. The defects were then responsible for :
- Staining of resin because of fluid leakage
- Therefore an unacceptable appearance.
- Poor filler retention – therefore filler loss and poor wear resistance.
- Then, a major advance in the resins fields occurred when BOWEN
developed a new composite material. His main formulation was – a
dimethacrylate resin viz. BIS-GMA, used along with silane to coat filler
particles which would chemically bond to the resin.
- An advantage of the dimethacrylate resin is that, since the BIS-GMA has a
higher molecular weight than methyl methacrylate, the density of the
methacrylate double bond groups is lower in the BIS-GMA monomer, a
factor which reduces polymerisation shrinkage. The use of a dimethacrylate
also improves cross-linking and thus the properties of the polymer.
2

3. 3. Definition of Composite :
According to Skinners – A compound of two or more distinctly different
materials with properties that are superior or intermediate to those of the
individual constituents.
According to DCNA – 1981 – A three-dimensional combination of atleast two
chemically different materials with a distinct interface separating the
components.
4. Classification of Composites : The classifications mentioned are of:
i. Skinners
ii. Marzouk
iii. J-Dental Update 1991 (size and type of fillers)
A. Skinners has classified composites based upon the average particle size
as :
Composite Particle size
i. Traditional composite (macrofilled) 8-12µm
ii. Small particle-filled composite 1-5µm
iii. Microfilled composite 0.04-0.4µm
iv. Hylorid composites 0.6-1.0µm
B. Marzouk on the other hand has classified composites as generations
depending on the order of their chronological development.
3

4. Prior to discussing the generations elucidated by Marzouk it is
important to note the two main phases present in a composite resin as stated by
him.
So, as Marzouk states, although a variety of composite resins are now
available to the dental profession they are all dependent upon the original ideal
of Raphael Bowen. Composites are all reinforced materials with :
1. A continuous (dispersion/reinforced) phase.
2. An interrupted (dispersed/reinforcing) phase.
a. The continuous phase – Consists of the synthetic resin macromolecules, i.e.
it is a reaction product of Bisphenol A and glycidyl methacrylate.
Other substitutes for BIS-GMA are :
i. Modified BIS-GMA – by elimination of OH group.
ii. Urethane diacrylate.
iii. TEG-DMA.
- Polymerization of this continuous phase brings about hardening of the
material which is inturn bought about by the initiators and activators.
b. The interrupted phase :
This may consist of either one or combination of the following :
i. MACRO- CERAMICS.
ii. COLLOIDAL and MICRO-CERAMICS.
iii. Fabricated macro reinforcing macro-reinforcing phases with
colloidal micro-ceramic component bases.
4

5. i. Macro-Ceramics – Consists of silicate based materials (SiO4), e.g.
quartz, fused silica, silicate glasses, crystalline lithium aluminium
silicate, (Radio-opaque) Ba-Al-boro-Si etc.
ii. Colloidal and Micro-Ceramics : Originally these consisted of colloidal
silicate forms but have now been replaced by larger sized pyrogenic
silica.
The colloidal silica (as silicic acid) – formulated by a chemical process
of hydrolysis and preparation colloidal form diameter – not more than 0.04
micrometers.
Pyrogenic state – dia – 0.05 – 1 micrometer.
iii. Colloidal or micro-ceramics are introduced into partially thermo-
chemically polymerized spherical particles of a resin system.
These highly reinforced spherical resin particles are then used as
reinforces for a continuous phase resin, forming a continuous resin.
The interphase between the continuous and interrupted phase is the most
crucial in determining the final behaviour of these composite systems.
Therefore chronologically we have:
i. First Generation Composites:
- Consist of macroceramic reinforce phases.
- Highest surface roughness.
- Highest proportion of destructive wear clinically (due to dislodging
of large ceramic particles).
5

6. - Drawbacks reduced by use of smaller, soften particles of variable
dimensions.
ii. Second Generation Composites:
- With colloidal and micro-ceramic phases.
- Best surface texture of all composites.
- Strength and coefficient of thermal expansion are unfavourable
because of limited % age of reinforced.
C. Third Generation of Composite:
- Hybrid composite.
- Combination of macro and microcolloidal ceramic reinforced in ratio of
75:25%.
- Properties are intermediate to Ist and 2nd
generations.
D. Fourth Generation of Composites :
- Also a hybrid composite.
- But instead of macro ceramic fillers they contain heat cured, irregularly
shaped highly reinforced composite macroparticles with a reinforcing
phase of microceramics.
- Fourth generation composites are very technique sensitive.
E. Fifth Generation Composites:
- Hybrid composite.
6

7. - Continuous phase is reinforced with microceramics and macro,
spherical, heat cured highly reinforced composite particles.
- The spherical shape of these macro ceramics improves their wettability
and consequently their chemical bonding to the continuous phase of the
final composite.
F. Sixth Generation Composites:
- Hybrid type.
- Continuous phase is reinforced with a combination of micro-ceramics
and agglomerates of sintered microceramics.
C. Classification of Composites based on Sizes and type of fillers (G.J.
Pearson : Dent Update 1991).
Composites are divided into 3 categories determined by the size and
type of their fillers:
They are:
i. Conventional composites.
ii. Microfine.
iii. Hybrid.
i. Conventional composites:
- The fillers in these is now usually radiopaque barium or strontium glass
with particle sizes in range between 2.5-5µm.
7

8. - (Disadvantages poor union to resin and therefore breakdown of
restoration).
ii. Microfine composites:
- The filler particles here viz. Colloidal silica are about 200 times
smaller than the conventional products. (These composites have a
higher proportion of resin therefore increased polymerisation
shrinkage and potentially more bulk wear).
iii. Hybrid composites:
- The filler particle size here is carefully defined and graded to give
varying proportion of large, medium and fine sized particles.
- The merit of this gradation is to provide maximum packing of the
filler (vol fraction 70%).
iv. Another classification based on size of fillers is mentioned by
Sturdevant as: (K. Leinfelder).
1. Megafill composites - Megafillers – β quartz, very large size.
2. Macrofill composites - Macrofillers – 10-100µ.
3. Midifill composites - Midifillers – 1-10µ.
4. Minifill composites - Minifillers – 0.1-1µ.
5. Microfill composites - Microfillers – 0.01-0.1µ.
6. Nanofill composites - Nanofillers – 0.005-0.01µ.
8

9. Composition :
- As I’ve stated earlier on in this seminar, the development of modern dental
composite resins started as for back as the early 60s when Raphael Bowen
had begun experiments to reinforce epoxy resins with filler particles.
These epoxy systems (with fillers) had certain drawbacks :
- Slow curing rate and
- Tendency to discolor, and thus these prompted him to combine the
advantages of epoxies and acrylates which culminated in the
development of the BIS-GMA molecule.
- So as of today majority of the composites contain a common formula
with the following major components :
1. An (organic) resin matrix.
2. Inorganic fillers.
3. Coupling agent.
4. Activator – Initiatior.
5. Inhibitors.
6. Pigments.
1. Organic Resin Matrix:
- Most of the composite resin matrix contain utilize alphatic or aromatic
diacrylate monomers.
- Hence we have the BIS-GMA, VEDMA and TEGDMA resin which are
amongst these commonly employed.
9

10. - The original high molecular weight resin viz. BIS-GMA has a very high
viscosity and thus since early times efforts to reduce this high room
temperature viscosity have been made by the addition of TEGDMA (which
is a diluent dimethacrylate monomer).
- The reduction in viscosity of BIS-GMA on addition of TEGDMA is quite
significant.
- However the addition of TEGDMA or other dimetharcylate monomers
leads to an increased polymerization shrinkage.
- The use of a urethane diacrylate base reduces the risk of shrinkage, since
this resin has a lower viscosity and so less diluent resin is needed.
2. Inorganic Fillers:
- The inorganic filler particles generally constitute 30-70 vol% or 50-85
wt% of the composite.
- A proper bonding done by a coupling agent of the filler particles to the
resin matrix is essential for optimal properties of the composite.
- The fillers reduce the resin components of the composite and thus in
turn reducing the % age of polymerization shrinkage (compared to
unfilled resins).
- The shrinkage should be of the order of 3 vol% for 24 hours.
- In filled resins thus,
10

11. 1. Water sorbtion and coefficient of thermal expansion are less.
2. Compressive strength, tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity are improved.
- A classification of composites based on fillers has already been stated.
- Quartz and silica are the most commonly employed inorganic fillers.
- These obtained from grinding or milling procedures are usually of 0.1-
100µm in size.
- The silica fillers (0.04µm size) – colloidal size usually referred to as
microfillers are produced by a pyrolytic / precipitation process.
- In this process, low molecular weight, Silicone compounds viz. SiCl4 are
polymerized by burning SiCl4 in an O2 & H2 atmosphere.
- During this process macromolecules of colloidal sizes are formed and
constitute the fillers.
- On the other hand, quartz has been used extensively as a filler (specially
in the 1st
generation).
- Quartz is available in 4 forms viz:
1. Crystalline quartz.
2. Crystalline crystoballite crystalline trigidymite.
3. Non-crystalline fused quartz.
11

12. - Quartz has an advantage of being chemically inert and extremely
hard with clinically makes the restoration difficult to polish and may
cause more abrasion of opposing teeth/restorations.
- To ensure acceptable aesthetics of a composite restoration. The
translucency of the filler must be similar to the tooth structure,
therefore the R.I. of the filler and resin should be III.
- Regarding index Similar
- [BIS-GMA + TEGDMA – together R.I. – 1.5, Quartz R.I. = 1.5]
1.55 1.46
- Additional fillers for all heavy metals, for all Ba, St and Zr provide
the necessary radiopacity to the material (Zirconium  Z-100 –
3M).
3. Coupling Agent:
- The bond between the two phases of the composite viz. The resin matrix
and the inorganic filler is provided by the coupling agent.
- This bonding allows the more flexible polymer matrix to transfer
stresses to the stiffer filler particles.
- Though titanates and Zirconates can be employed it is the Organosilanes
which are most commonly used with agents.
12

13. Method of Coupling:
- In their hydrolysed state the silanes contain silanods groups that can
bond with silanods on the filler surface by formation of siloxane bonds
(S-O-Si).
- The methacrylate group of the coupling agent forms covalent bonds with
the resin when polymerized.
4. Activator – Initiator systems:
The methacrylate monomers used in dental composites polymerize by
an Addition Polymerization reaction mechanism which is initiated by free
radicals.
- These free radicals in turn are generated either by:
i. Chemical activation or.
ii. External energy activation (light/heat activation).
(And therefore we have the chemically and light cured composites).
i. Chemically activated composites:
- Usually supplied as 2 pastes.
1. Contains benzyol peroxide initiator.
13
S-O-S1
Organic Resin
Matrix
Coupling
Agent
Filler
(Inorgan)

14. 2. Contains tertiary (N,N dimethyl p-toludine) amine activator.
- When 2 pastes are spatulated the amine reacts with the benzoyl
peroxide to form free radicals and addition polymerization is
initiated.
ii. Light Activated composites:
- Initially, the U-V light was used to cure composites which was later
replaced by the visible light.
- These had an advantage of increased penetration depth of upto 2mm.
- The light curable composites are supplied as a single paste system
consisting of the photo initiator viz. Camphoroquinone and an amine
activator.
- Exposure of these components to light of correct wavelength usually
on the blue zone (approx 468nm) causes excitation of the
photoinitiator and a following interaction with the amine to form free
radicals which initiate polymerization.
- The light source required should be in the range of 400-500nm (for
the photo initiator) which is in the blue region of visible light).
- An alternative to the visible light is the Argon Ion laser source.
In a study conducted, it was seen that the argon-ion laser beam though
of a similar wavelength i.e. 420-480nm has a greater depth of penetration i.e.
14

15. upto 5mm which also improved physical properties of the composite materials
of both microfilled and hybrid.
The depth of cure is greater for hybrid composition as a result of
increased particle size and increased dispersion (and increased depth of cure).
5. Inhibtors:
- A characteristic feature of the incorporated inhibitors is that they
prevent spontaneous polymerization of the composite by reacting
with the free radical formed (during a brief exposure of the
composite) and thus inhibiting chain propagation.
Eg: butylated hydroxytoluene  0.01 wt%.
6. Optical Modifiers and Pigments:
- These are added to imitiate the shade and translucency of the original
tooth structure.
- The shading / coloring is achieved by the addition of various metal
oxides.
- The opacifiers which affect the translucency, actually dictate the amount
of light transmitted / reflected from the restoration and thus have a final
word as far as the appearance of the restoration is concerned.
- A limited amount of opacifier makes the restoration too translucent
while it’s excess makes the restoration appear “too white” as excess
light is scattered back.
15

16. Opacifiers used – Titanium dioxide and Al.oxide - (0.001-0.007wt%).
- It is noticed that all optical modifiers affect the light transmission
ability of a composite.
- As most composites are light cured, this suggests that different
shades and opacities have a different depth of cure.
- Studies have suggested that darker shades and opacifiers should be
placed in thinner layers to optimize polymerization.
Manipulation and Placement of Composite Systems:
Here, we would be discussing at length in relation to the manipulation
and placement of the 2 paste and single paste systems:
- However prior to placement of the composite restoratin, the pulp
may be protected using a cavity liner and Ca(OH2) placed at the
deepest portion of the cavity.
- The enamel is then etched with an acid solution.
Acid – Etch Technique :
- One of the most effective ways of improving the marginal seal and
mechanical bonding is by the use of the acid etch technique,
developed and introduced by Bunocore 1955.
- The process of achieving a bond between enamel and resin
restorative systems includes discrete etching of the enamel in order
16

17. to provide selective dissolution with resultant micro-porosity
(microtags).
- The etched enamel has a high surface energy unlike the normal
enamel surface, and allows the resin to wet readily the surface and
penetrate into the microporosity.
- These resin tags may go as for as 10-20µm into the microporosities,
(the length is however dependant on the etching time).
- The most commonly employed acid is the H3PO4 at a concentration
of 30-50% (DCNA 81) Chow & Brown have shown that
concentration below 30% were unacceptable because the pdt. from
the action of phosphoric acid on enamel was insoluble and would
remain as a contaminant on the surface.
- Concentrations greater than 50% result in the formation of a
Monocalcium Phosphate Monohydrate which inhibits further
dissolution.
- Therefore an optimum concentration i.e. of 37% is provided.
- In other situations we have. ALL ETCH – 10% UNI ETCH – 37%
- Although aqueous solutions are present, generally the etchant is
supplied in a gel form (increased silica content) to allow control over
the area of placement.
- Can be applied with brushes / syringe system.
17

18. Regarding the GEL Application time :
Originally 60 seconds was recommended but studies have revealed that
15 secs provides a strong bond.
- However application time varies with the history of the tooth for eg: a
tooth with high fluoride content requires a longer etch time. It is said
that the fluorides react with etched surfaces to produce reaction pdt that
may interfere with bonding.
- The bond strengths achieved with etched enamel range from 16Mpa
(2300psi) – 22Mpa (3200psi).
- Clinically, the etchant should be thoroughly rinsed off and the tooth
surface dried completely such that the enamel should have a white,
frosted appearance.
- Drying the enamel with warm air or with an ethanol rinse also increases
the bond strength.
- The etched enamel should be kept free of contaminants and saliva,
blood, moisture which would affect bond strengths.
- If contaminated, the tooth should be rinsed and the enamel dried and
etched again for 10 seconds.
Manipulation of the composite systems:
As spoken of before, the composite systems may be a 2 paste or a single
paste system, therefore we have their respective manipulation techniques:
18

19. A. 2-paste system : (chemically cured) :
- The pastes are supplied as:
i. Universal paste and
ii. Catalyst paste.
- The two pastes are mixed (20-30 seconds M.T.) using a plastic, wooden or
agate spatula.
- Metal spatulas are not recommended as the inorganic particles are abrasive
and abraded metal particles could discolor the metal.
- Care also should be taken during manipulation to avoid incorporation of air
bubbles which contain O2 and these could lead to O2 inhibition during
polymerization.
- The W.T. (or insertion time) is about 1-1/2 min.
- The S.T. is about 4-5 min.
- The material may be placed into the cavity by:
A. Plastic instruments : Advantages are
i. Do not stick to composite during insertion.
ii. Avoid discoloration of composite by metal instruments.
B. Plastic tip of syringe : Advantages for this are:
i. Syringe allows use of small mixes.
ii. Reduces problem of void incorporation.
19

20. iii. Facilitates placement of material in areas of retention.
- Materials employed for matrces for these composites include : Polyster or
polyethelene plastic strips.
To overcome 2 potential problems of the 2-paste system viz.
- Incorporation of air bubbles.
- No control of W.T. after mixing of materials.
Materials which did not require mixing, were developed viz. The light
composites. Their advantages included:
- Control over the manipulation time (sp. W.T.) and it took only about
40 secs to cure a 2mm thick increment.
- The light cure systems were not sensitive to the O2 inhibition.
However certain disadvantages association with these light cured
composites include :
- Shrinkage of composites towards the light source.
- Complicating factors association with the light souce.
In the single paste system, thus, the paste, available in many shades is
held in a syringe or compule that contains all of the necessary ingredients
which is placed or injected into the prepared cavity.
- The composite is then cured, when exposed to a visible light source of the
wavelength between 400-500nm.
20

21. - More specifically the blue zone (468nm), produces excitation of the
photoinitiator molecule and an interaction with the amine ensures to form
free radicals that initiate addition polymerization.
- This mentioned light source is usually a tungsten halogen bulb.
- The light is transmitted to the hose by means of a fiber-optic.
- The exposure times of the composite for polymerization depend upon:
- The type of lamp.
- The depth of the composite – 20-60 secs for a restoration 3mm thick.
- Shade of the composite – darker shades more time.
- Type of the composite – Microfilled composites require longer time
than fine particle because the smaller filler particles scatter the light
more.
- Caution – although the light is filtered to provide only blue light, one should
not look at the tip or the reflected (from enamel) light because of the high
intensity, with could affect the color vision (affect rods and cones)?.
- Some lamps may even produce considerable heat which could lead to
pulpal irritation.
Properties of the Composites and Clinical Considerations :
- The physical properties are exhibited by the following chart.
- Coming next to the clinical considerations of the individual composites.
21

22. 1. Traditional Composites :
- A major clinical disadvantages of the traditional composites is the rough
surface that develops during the abrasive wear of the soft-resin matrix that
leaves the more wear resistance filler particles elevated.
- This rough surfaced texture also pre-disposes the restoration with a
tendency to discolor.
- The poor wear resistance thus makes traditional composites as inferior
materials for posterior composites.
- The high filler content decreases polymerisation shrinkage and coefficient
of T.E. the resin matrix however doesn’t bond chemically to the tooth
structure.
2. Microfilled Composites:
- Their use in stress bearing areas has been questioned because of their
potential for chipping.
- This chipping observed more commonly at the restoration margins has been
attributed to the debonding of the pre-polymerized composite filler.
- To minimize this marginal chipping, diamond bur rather than fluted
tungsten carbides have been recommended for trimming microfilled
composites. However due to their smooth surface texture.
Physical Properties of Composite Restorative Materials:
22

23. Some of the important physical properties I would be discussing here,
are as follows:
i. Inorganic filler content.
1. Compressive and Tensile strengths.
2. Polymerization shrinkage.
3. Water sorption.
4. Coefficient of thermal expansion.
5. Fracture Resistance.
6. Wear resistance.
7. Radio-opacity.
8. Bond strengths to enamel and dentin.
i. Inorganic filler content:
As the filler content primarily affects the previously mentioned physical
properties, it is thus imperative to have an ideal about the actual inorganic filler
content of the individual varieties of composites :
1. Compressive and tensile strengths :
The compressive and tensile strengths of small particles and hybrid
composites are clearly superior to the traditional and microfilled composites.
(Craig) – The particles of the microfilled composites increase the
viscosity of the materials so that only ICW volume fractions of filler are
possible and thus their compressive strengths are lower.
2. Polymerization shrinkage:
23

24. The fine (small) particle composites shrink less during polymerization
than microfilled, since the shrinkage is a direct function of the amount of
organic matrix.
- It has been shown that even with acid etching of enamel and the use of
bonding agents, stresses from polymerization shrinkage can exceed bond
strengths of the composites to tooth structure and as a result marginal
leakage is not prevented.
- Thus 2 techniques have been proposed to overcome or minimize this
polymerisation shrinkage.
1. To insert and polymerize the composite in layers (incremental build up)
thus reducing the effective shrinkage).
2. To prepare a composite inlay in the mouth or die and then to cement the
inlay to the tooth with a thin layer of a low-viscosity composite cement.
These composite inlays are usually heated outside the mouth after curing
which increases polymerization and wear resistance.
3. Water sorption
The higher values for microfilled compressive are apparent. These
results occur because the organic matrix is mainly responsible for the
absorption of water. Clinically therefore, the microfilled composites have a
greater potential for being discolored by water soluble stains.
- Also, the effect water sorption on the degradation of properties of
composites is irreversible.
24

25. 4. Coefficient of thermal expansion:
- As seen from the table the microfilled have the highers coefficient of
thermal expansion, reason being.
- Higher the amount of organic matrix, higher the linear coefficient of
thermal expansion, since the polymer has a higher value than the filler.
- Therefore clinically, restorations with microfilled composite will have a
greater change in dimension with changes in oral temperature.
5&6. Fracture resistance:
- The KHN of comosites is exponentially related to the volume fraction of the
filler (filler density) and is less related to the hardness of the filler. The wear
resistance of any composite is also a function of the interparticle spacing
called the “Protection Hypothesis”.
- As seen from the table the small particle and hybrid composites have a
superior hardness and wear resistance in comparison with the other systems.
7. Radioopacity:
For a composite to be radio-opaque it must contain an element with a
high atomic number, Ba, Str, Bromins, Zinc, Zr, Since carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and silicone are not sufficiently high in the atomic series to alternuate
x-rays.
25

26. - The small particle or hybrid composites usually contain these elements (i.e.
the heavy metal glasses) and are this advertised as radio-opaque by the
manufacturers.
- However, Craig points out that not all composites appear radio-opaque on
dental radiographs.
8. Bond strengths:
The maxillary bond strengths of composites to acid etched enamel are
about twice as high as the bond strengths to dentin.
- The difference exists based on the increased inorganic content of enamel
and also the compositional and morphological differences in dentin.
Biocompatibility of Composites:
Composite resins have found to:
i. Produce more cytotoxicity than amalgam in comparative in vitro tests.
ii. Be classifiable as a toxic restorative material.
iii. Produce inflammatory response in the pulp when placed in test cavities
in animals.
iv. Be strongly allergenic.
v. Inhibit RNA synthesis of cells.
The peroxides in composites are used to generate free radicals in the
polymerization of composite resins and the peroxides are known to be
promotes of skin tumours. The peroxides may be mainly responsible for the
toxicity of composites.
26

27. In addition free radicals produced during polymerization may be
responsible for the development of some cancers.
The dimethacrylates can be enzymically degraded by the enzymes
present in the saliva and gingival crevicular fluid and this can influence the rate
of wear.
As far as the pulpal response is concerned the polymerized composites are
more / less biocompatible, however uncured composites serve as reservoir of
diffusable components that can induce long term pulp-inflammation.
- The second biologic concern is associated with the shrinkage of the
composite during polymerization and subsequent marginal leakage.
- The emitted light from the VL unti can cause retinal damage, microfilled
have become the resins of choice for anterior restorations and subgingival
restorations.
III. Small Particle Filled Composites:
- Due to their better strengths and high filler content these are more suitable
for regions where higher and abrasion may be encountered for all Class I
and II sites.
- They have a reasonably good surface smoothness but not as much as
microfilled or hybrid.
IV. Hybrid Composites:
27

28. - As a result of their surface smoothness and reasonably good strength these
composites are widely used for anterior restorations including Class IV
sites.
- Though their mechanical properties are slightly inferior to the small particle
filled composites the hybrid composites are widely used for stress bearing
restorations.
Posterior Composites  To be discussed as under
A relatively newer topic for discussion, the post composites, is dealt
with as follows:
A. Controversies in development of alternatives to amalgam.
B. The advances of posterior tooth colored restorations (compressive inlays).
C. More recent advances - Flowable composites.
- Condensable composites.
A. Controversies in development of alternatives to amalgam:
- Dissension in some form has always has a role in dentistry. The posterior
composite resin restorations present the practitioners with a number of
uncertainties and because of this the dental profession finds itself in the
middle of an emotional duel.
- As a result of the misleading media, Cosmetics has become a chief priority
for patients today.
- These advertisings have led to almost a large % age of patients who refuse
metallic restorations in their mouth.
28

29. - To add to the problems, these advertisers have joined hands with the
Zealots of dental community who cry about the never ending controversely
of “Mercury Toxicity”.
- However to date, as stated by Ronald Jordan (JADA 91) there has not been
a shred of evidence directly linking dental amalgam with a systemic disease
of any kind for all multiple scelerosis, anthritis etc, though some very rare
instances are reported.
- Thus condemning the use of these time honored metallic restorations, the
zealots now replace them with the esthetic posterior composite restorations.
- I say “time honoured” metallic restorations because these restorations,
amalgam in particular had cutain advantage’ to withstand the test of time
advantages were:
1. Ease of placement.
2. Good mechanical properties.
3. Excellent wear resistance.
4. Self-sealing ability with aging of restorations.
The amalgam restorations I feel would enjoy successful use in the future
too, since recently developed materials actually bond dental amalgam to both
enamel and dentin.
However then, due to an increased in aesthetic consciousness, posterior
composites developed. The ideal requirements of a posterior test material (as
published in the D.C.N.A. Jan 1990 include.
1. Esthetics.
2. High resistance to clinical wear.
29

30. 3. Permanent marginal integrity.
4. Minimal cavity preparation.
5. Provision of a sealing bond and retentive bond to tooth structure.
6. Non-brittle mateial with adequate tensile and compressive strength.
7. Radiopacity.
8. Self bonding properties should additional restorations become
necessary.
9. Ease of manipulation.
10.Non-toxicity.
11.Resistance to formation of secondary caries.
12.Minimal galvanic and thermal shock properties.
History: of direct posterior composite restorations:
The use of directly placed posterior composites for Class I and II
preparations dates back to the mid 1960s.
- Desirable features of these new alternatives to amalgam included :
Naturally :
- Better aesthetics.
- Marginal integrity.
- Low thermal conductivity.
- Resistance to T&C
- However, at the beginning, the initial claims for their success were based on
short term clinical studies and laboratory tests.
- Failures of these materials, in the form of color changes, wear,
microleakage and rec., caries began to appear in approx 2 years, major
30

31. reasons being the dynamic forces of mastication associated with other
factors in the oral environment which were not included in the short term
and laboratory studies.
- Thus the composites underwent compositional improvements from the 70s
to 90s.
- Thus as of today materials, with :
a. Improved color stability.
b. Resistance to microleakage.
c. Reduced wear and
d. A lower incidence to rec caries are made available which are
encouraging for the clinician.
Selection criteria for direct posterior composite restoration materials:
The important features on the tooth restored to be with posterior
composite restorations are:
A. The location of the centric stops –
In general the location of centric stops on the occlusal surface of the
proposed restoration must be avoided. Failure to comply with this could lead to
serious problems for all wear from the antagonistic cusp or bulk fracture as in
certain composite resins when subjected to concentrated occlusal stresses.
As for as the wear pattern is concerned, altogether 5 types of wear
patterns could be exhibited, which I would be dealing with later on.
31

32. B. Anticipated depth of the gingival floor on the proximal surface.
- In this context, the deeper the gingival floor the thinner would be the
enamel wall in cross-section and as the enamel becomes thinner the
potential for adequate bonding of the composite decreases.
- When the gingival margins are located in the dentin or cementum or both
and the resin is firmly anchored to the etched enamel at the other margins,
the material tends to shrink away from the gingival margins during
polymerization.
- This leads to a gap formation and ensuring marginal leakage.
C. Location and Size of the Restoration:
- In general the more distal the location the greater is the rate of wear.
- As a general rule posterior composite resins in molars commonly wear
away approx twice as fast as those in premolars as reported by Skinners the
best composites designed for posterior restorations still wear more than
natural enamel under identical conditions.
- Bucco-lingual width of the restorations – is also an important consideration.
32

33. - The greater the dimension of the isthmus the faster rate of wear.
Advantages of Bonded Direct Composite Restorations for class I, II, III
and IV preparations (Vs amalgam in general).
1. Esthetics
2. Conservation of tooth structure.
3. Improved resistance to microleakage.
4. Strengthening of tooth structure.
5. Low thermal conductivity.
6. Completion in one appointment.
7. Economics – less expensive than gold /ceramics.
8. No corrosion.
Disadvantages :
1. Very technique sensitive.
- One of the by pdts of this drawback according to Karl Leinfelder is
secondary caries.
- Also due to salivary contamination (if any) decreased bond strengths and
thus ensuring reduction in other properties would ensure.
- In Class II restorations care should be observed in placing and positioning
the matrix bonds because posterior composites are almost entirely
dependent upon the contour and position of the matrix for proximal contact
establishment also pre-wedging is required (explain).
33

34. - This technique of composite placement is a more time consuming and
tedious compared to amalgam.
2. Higher coefficient of thermal expansion than tooth structure.
3. Low modulus of elasticity.
4. Biocompatibility of some components unknown.
5. Limited wear resistance in high stress areas.
Polymer shrinkage
Indications for direct posterior composite restorations:
1. Aesthetics.
2. Class I and II cavities which can be properly isolated and where some
centric contact(s) on the tooth structure is (are) present.
3. Class V defects – hypoplasia, hypomineralization.
- Cavitated carious lesions.
- Abrasion and erosion lesions which are excessively
sensitive or deep.
4. Class VI cavities (faulty pits on selected occlusal cusps).
5. Veneers for metal restorations.
34

35. 6. Repair of #’d areas (teeth and or restorations).
7. Restoration of a weakened tooth that can be strengthened by a bonded
restorations.
8. Where gingival cavosurface margin is in intact enamel.
9. Where bucco-lingual width is less than 1/3 intercuspal distance.
10. Where centric stops are on sound enamel surface.
Contra indications:
1. Operating site cannot be well isolated.
2. When all occlusal contact will be on the composite.
3. Therefore heavy occlusal stresses for all bruxism.
4. Deep subgingival areas difficult to prepare or restore.
5. High caries index.
Clinically loss of material caused with
1. Functional Contact Area Wear – Related to sliding contacts.
2. Proximal Contact Area Wear – at interproximal contact regions.
3. Tooth brush abrasions wear – From tooth brushes and dentifrices.
Studies reveal that the best composites for posterior restorations. Still
wear more than natural enamel under identical conditions.
- The nature of wear has said to have two principle mechanism viz:
35

36. 1. Based on direct contact of restorations with opposing cusp (Direct Contact
Area Wear).
2. Loss of material in non-contact areas must probably caused by contact with
a food bolus. (Contact Free Area Wear).
A classification of these composite inlays is according to:
A. Method of construction – Direct Technique.
– Indirect technique.
B. Method of curing – Super cured
– Secondary cured
– Cured by conventional V.L.C. unit of ambient
temperature.
C. Type of composite – Microfilled
(according to filler type) – Fine hybrid
– Coarse Hybrid
Advances in posterior composites:
- Although the posterior composites have increased in popularity and appear
to be well accepted by patients and also improved materials and accessories
have helped maximise their potential, the direct placement posterior
composites still have some limitations viz: (as mentioned)
1. Polymerization shrinkage.
36

37. 2. Difficulty in achieving adequate polymerization in deep interproximal
areas with leads to a partially cured interphase susceptible to a wash out
and subsequent bacterial ingress.
3. Lack of stability in anatomic form and susceptibility to damage in load
bearing areas.
4. Water sorbtion and resultant hydrolytic instability.
5. Technique sensitivity.
- Thus to overcome some of these drawbacks composite inlays systems were
introduced. They are defined as : (BDJ 1991 Burke and Watts).
- “A composite inlay is a restoration which is cemented into a dental cavity
as a solid mass that has been fabricated from composite resin with a form
established either by an indirect or direct procedure.
Classifications in Detail:
A. Method of construction :
1. Direct Technique:
- Inlays are constructed in the prepared cavity in the mouth, prior to removal
for additional curing, finishing and polishing. Eg. Brilliant direct inlay
system (Coltene Whal‘dent); True vitality system (Dent Mat Corp).
2. Indirect Techniques (Clearfil CR inlay (Kuraray) – in India by Tracom
Services – may be chairside fabricated or lab fabricated.
B. Method of curing :
37

38. 1. Super cured:
- One stage cure at elevated temperature under pressure.
- The composite is heat cured, rather than light cured as in sec cured and
conventional cured systems.
- The inlays here are cured at 120° C at 6 bar pressure under water. Eg. SR-
ISOSIT System contains homogenously filled compressive material with
55% wt% colloidal silica + 20% radiopaque lanthanum fluoride in 7 shades
+ 6 mix in colors.
2. Secondary cured :
- After initial light curing at room or body temperature additional curing is
effected by heat and light. Eg:
a. Coltene Brilliant Aesthetic Line System in which the inlay is sec cured
in high intensity light system upto 120°C for 7 mins.
b. Kulzer Inlay System – Inlay is sec cured in high intensity light in an
enclosed light activating unit attachment with internal narrowed surfces.
Glass ceramic filled material which 80% filler by mass.
3. Conventional Cure – Normal mechanism Eg. EOS system.
Short note on:
1. Indication for composite inlays:
a. Good oral hygiene status.
38

39. b. Teeth with adequate remaining tooth structure for bonding.
c. Cavities where occlusal function of the restoration is limited.
d. Restorations of particularly root filled teeth, which are ultimately
destined for crowning.
e. Where there is no evidence of excessive wear.
f. Patients who are prepared to receive and accept a restoration with
unknown life expectancy.
2. Contra indications for composite inlays:
a. Poor oral hygiene.
b. Less tooth structure for adequate bonding and retention and resistance
form.
c. Situations where there is evidence of atypical loss of tooth substance
from the surfaces of teeth to be restored.
d. Where moisture control for optimal bonding cannot be maintained.
3. Advantages of Composite inlays:
- High esthetics.
- Better control of contact areas. Excellent marginal adaptation.
- Reduced or no lab fee (therefore decreased cost) if done in the office.
- Ready reparability of the material intraorally.
39

40. - Cross splinting of compromised tooth and easy removal if replacement
becomes necessary.
- Compensation for polymerization shrinkage by curing materials outside
the mouth.
- Increased composite resins strength because of the heat curing process.
Prosthodontic Resins (Veneering Resins)
- The initial resins, veneering materials employed were basically heat cured
polymethyl methacrylate.
- There were subsequently improved by the addition of fillers and cross
linking agents.
- So then we had microfilled resins with resin matrices of either BIS-GMA,
UDMA etc.
- These resins were polymerized using light of wavelength between 320-
520nm or by a combination of heat and pressure.
As far as the bonding of these resins to the underlying metal substrates
is concerned, these resins were initially bonded Mechanically using wire loops
or retention bends.
The recent improvements in bonding mechanisms have included
micromechanical retention created by acid etching the basal metal alloy and the
use of chemical bonding systems for all 4-META. Phosphorylated methacrylate
or epoxy resins.
40

41. Another method is by the use of silicone dioxide that is flame sprayed to
the metal surface followed by the application of a silane coupling agent
(Silicoating).
These prosthodontic resin veneering materials have several advantages
and even certain disadvantages over ceramics. The advantages are:
i. Ease of fabrication.
ii. Predictable intraoral repairability.
iii. Less wear of opposing teeth ore restorations.
The disadvantages include:
i. Low proportional limit and pronounced plastic deformation that
contribute to distortion on occlusal loading therefore resin must be
protected with metal occlusal surfaces.
ii. Another disadvantage – leakage of oral fluids and staining below the
veneers, particularly those attached mechanically are caused by the :
- Dimension change during thermal cycling and
- Water sorption
- Surface staining and intrinsic discoloration of the resins has
also been reported.
On the clinical front:
41

42. - The prosthodontic resins have been utilized as an alternative to
conventional prosthodontic restorations. Such as for masking tooth
discoloration or teeth malformations.
- In this, the resins aer used as preformed laminate veneers where resin shells
are adjusted by grinding and the contoured facing is boded to tooth structure
using acid –etch technique or dual cure luting cements.
- These resins are susceptible to wear during tooth brushing and thus part of
the clinician it is important for him to advise proper cleansing procedures
and also the use of a soft toothbrush with a mild abrasive toothpaste.
Pit and Fissure Sealants:
The prevention of caries in deep grooves and fissures of teeth is more
difficult than is the prevention of caries on the smooth surfaces.
The susceptibility of occlusal pits and fissures to caries is related to the
physical size and morphology of the individual pit and fissure. (may be v-
shaped / bottle neck shaped).
Treatment options for pit and fissure canines include:
1. When there is no evidence of a “explorer catch” at the bottom of the groove
– to be kept under observation.
2. To run a bur through the fissure so as to open up the groove and provide a
more self cleansing effect “Prophylactic Odontomy”.
42

43. 3. Another option is to cut a larger groove and restore with dental amalgam
(Jack L. Ferracane).
However a more conservative approach than the last one mentioned is
the use of the Pit and fissure sealants.
Although filling pits and fissures with chemicals and other materials
dates back almost to the turn of the 20th
century, it was the development in the
1960s (1955 Dr. Buconocore – concept of acid etching), of the acid etch
technique for bonding resins to enamel with made this option available.
Materials used:
- The pit and fissure sealants may be supplied as a :
- 2 component system or
- Single
Essential Component- Organic monomer – BIS-GMA
1. 2 component system – (also called amine accellerated)
The polymerization here can be bought about by mixing equal drops of
two liquids containing essential chemical activators (amines and initiators
(peroxides).
- The resin liquid hardens in 1.5 – 2 mins providing an ample W.T. to brush
or pour material onto the etched tooth surface.
- The reaction is exothermic but clinically insignificant until used in bulk.
43

44. 2. Single component :
A more popular method, of polymerizing the resin is the use of a blue
light source.
The advantages of this method are:
i. Longer W.T. (W.T. under control of operators).
ii. No mixing, therefore no air bubbles.
iii. Studies reveal L.C. P&F sealants have increased surface hardness
(because of less air inhibition during polymerization).
A drawback observed was that polymer resin sealants wear under
occlusal forces studies have shown this loss as 15% by volume over period of 6
months.
The chemistry of the BISGMA resin types is essentially same as those
described for composites. The principle difference is that the BIS-GMA
sealants must be much more fluid to penetrate into P and F etched tags 3 parts
of BIS-GMA are mixed with 1 part of MMA to obtain a low viscosity sealant.
The photoinitiated resins are activated by the inclusion of benzoin
methyl ether in a carrier o pthalate ester when the operture of the source is held
1mm from the sealant curing time of 20 secs is sufficient.
Technique of Application:
1. Enamel surface preparation:
Other than usual steps followed important points remember are:
44

45. a. The wettability of enamel surface is improved by etching 1min for normal
enamel.
b. Entire depth of the fissure should be etched and subsequently penetrated by
resin which may be prevented by air entrapped / debris.
c. Penetration of resin leads to resin tag formation (25-50µm).
d. Isolation is essential.
Poly Acid Modified Composite Resin:
According to Jay (Dent Update Sept 95) these are – materials that may
contain either or both of the essential components of a glass ionomer cement
but at levels insufficient to promote the acid/ base reaction in the dark.
Eg. Dyract – where the resin is TCB – a reaction pdt of butane tetracarboxylic
acid + HEMA. The filler is a silicate glass containing fluoride.
C. More Recent Advances in Posterior Composites:
1. Flowable Composites :
The traditional composite resins are densely loaded with reinforcing
filler particles for strength and wear resistance. Generally all
mechanicalproperteis improve with filler loading.
45

46. Despite the numerous refinements made in traditional composites over
the past decade, two desirable clinical handling characteristics for composites
have not existed until very recently : They are:
i. Non-Stickiness – so that materials could be packed or condensed
like amalgam.
ii. Fluid injectability.
The first generation of flowable composites was thus introduced in
1996, just before the condensable composites. So date a very limited
information is available on either type of new composites.
The flowable composites have been created by retaining the same small
particle size of traditional hybrid composite, but reducing the filler content,
thus allowing the increased resin to reduce the viscosity of the mixture.
Therefore these flowable composites fitted into the range of resin based
restoratives with variations in filler content. This range from least to most filled
is as follows:
1. Pit and fissure sealants.
2. Microfil composite resins.
3. Flowable composites.
4. Hybrid composite.
5. Condensable / packable composit.
The early success, then associated with the flowable composite pdts was
more as a result of marketingthan of any properties beyond flow.
- Thus several companies so on had their own flowable composite pdts out in
the market.
46

47. - Thus eg of commercially available flowable composites with respective
filler information is as follows:
Type of F.C. Manufacturer Filler information
1. Eliteflo BISCO INC. Type : Barium glass colloidal
silica.
Avg size: 0.7µm wt% 60%
2. Flo-Restore DEN-MAT Corp. Type : Silica; barium glass barium
fluoride silicate
Avg size : 0.7µm wt% 50%
3. Revolution KERR-Corp. Type : Barium glass synthetic
silica
Avg size : 1µm et% 62%
4. Ultraseal
XT Plus
Ultra dent Pdts Type : Glass Ionomer Glasses
Avg size – 1.0-1.5µm wt % 60%
- Recently it has been suggested that one key mechanical property for clinical
prediction of performance may be toughness.
- This property of toughness could co-relate with both wear and % resistance.
- Since these flowable composite are more resin inch than traditional
composites one might expect their toughness values to be better than those
of conventional composite.
- The flowable composite might also have higher # toughness values because
of their low elastic module. Therefore finally, because of a lack of
substantiating research these flowable composites should not be used in
situations involving high stress or associated with wear.
47

48. Range of applications for flowable composites as suggested by
manufacturers:
- Amalgam margin repair.
- Class I, II, III, IV and V restorations particularly gingival increments.
- Composite repair.
- Core build up.
- Pit and fissure sealant.
- Porcelain repair.
- Restorations of air abrasion preparatus.
- Tunnel preparation restorations.
- Veneers.
5. Condensable Composites:
As noticed, the early formulations of composites (as developed by
Bowen) has a number of drawbacks for all inadequate wear resistance,
shrinkage etc.
- Though considerable progress has been made regarding the wear problems,
comparatively little research has been directed in improving the handling
of these materials.
Recently a new concept was developed that provides the basis for
fabricating a packable or condensable posterior composite resins.
48

49. - This innovative system also consists of a resin and a ceramic component
(filler) (together known as PRIMM) Polymeric rigid inorganic matrix
material.
- The ceramic filler, not an inorganic one consists of a continuous network of
or scaffold of ceramic fibers.
- These fibres are individually composed of alumina (Al2O3) and silicon
dioxide (SiO2).
- The individual fibres are superficially fused together at selected sites which
then generates a continuous network of small chamber or cavities.
- The diameter of these individual ceramic fibres is 2.0µm or smaller, while
the 3-dimensional interface interfacial chambers approximate to 25µm.
- After silanation these chambers / spaces are then filled by the manufacturer
with BISGMA or UDMA.
- The use of PRIMM in conjunction with BISGMA or UDMA has a profound
effect on a number of important properties associated with the clinical
performance of posterior composites.
Handling characteristics :
- The consistency of the resin infused PRIMM material is very similar to that
of a freshly triturated mass of amalgam.
- Upon completion of cavity preparation the clinician inserts the composite in
the same manner as that for an amalgam.
49

50. - However since the alumina fibres are hard they have the potential to scratch
the nozzle of the amalgam carrier for this reason the tip should be coated or
made from a wear resistance polymer (Teflon). Each ejected material is
then condensed in a conventional manner.
- The cavity is then filled to a point slightly beyond the cavosurface margin +
excess removed with a cleoid discoid / hollenback cawer.
- The restorations is then cured for 30 secs.
- This restorations can be cured to a depth of 6mm using conventional light
curing unit. This increased depth is possibly related to the light conducting
properties of the individual ceramic fibres.
- Regarding the shrinkage, since the surface of the ceramic fibres is silanated,
the polymerising resin does not pull away from the surface. Any defects
that occur as a result of polymer shrinkage will be localized in the small
chambers of space formed by the surrounding ceramic fibres.
Technique for placement of composites:
- The light activated composites have certain manipulative advantages for all:
i. No mixing required therefore eliminating certain manipulative
variables.
ii. W.T. is chosen by the clinician.
- However during placement of the mateial into the prepared cavity avoiding
void formation is essential.
50

51. - The voids can be minimized by wiping the material onto one side and then
filling the cavity from the bottom outward.
- To prevent material from sticking to the instument wip the instrument with
a gauze dipped in alcohol.
- To avoid polymerization shrinkage and also an adequate depth of cure, an
incremental technique is essential.
- In the curing procedure, the light tip should be positioned as closely as
possible to the resin surface. Ideally, curing should be initiated at the tooth
resin interface so that the resin shrinks towards the cavity walls rather than
away from these walls.
- This can be achieved by curing through the tooth structure adjacent to the
proximal margins.
Finishing and Polishing of Composites :
- The smoothest surface on freshly inserted composites can be obtained by
allowing polymerization to occur against an inserted mylar matrix.
- The use of green /carbide stones / 12 blade carbide burs is also accepted for
removal of excess, near the enamel margins.
- This is followed by the use of:
i. Aluminium oxide disks – for accessable areas finishing.
ii. White stones – of suitable shapes – inaccessible areas.
iii. Fine and microfine diamonds – finishing of microfilled resins.
51

52. Chemically by application of DBA and curing (for glazing)
Repair of composites:
- The composites may be repaired by placing new material over the old.
- This addition procedure depends upon whether the restoration is freshly
polymerized or an old restoration.
- When a restoration has been freshly polymerized, it may still have the O2
inhibited layer of resin on the surface. Additions can be made directly to
this layer because this represents, in essence, an excellent bonding
substrate.
- A restoration which has been just cured and polished may still have more
than 50% of unreacted methacrylate groups to copolymerize with the newly
added material.
- As this restoration ages, fewer unreacted methacrylate groups remain and
greater crosslinking, reduces the ability of fresh monomer to penetrate into
the matrix.
- Thus, the strength of the bond between the original material the added resin
decreases in direct proportion to the time that has elapsed between
polymerization and addition of new resin.
- Under ideal condensations the strength of repaired composites is less than
half of the strength of the original material.
52

53. Conclusion:
“All that glitters is not gold” could be a maximum which can be evenly
associated with the composite resin materials.
What one would interpret with this is that though the composite
materials show much promise for replacing all aesthetic and posterior
restoratives in the near future, certain drawbacks associated with them viz.
Wear resistance strength, polymerisation shrinkage etc. do resist their clinical
usage to some extent.
However, we could be sure than once these hurdles are overcome this
material would surely be one of the favourites in dentistry in the years to come.
53