1. Motivation at Work
Week 4 – 19/03/2008

2. Motivation
The force which drives behaviour (pp.48)
• DIRECTION - i.e. what a person is trying to do
• EFFORT - how hard a person is trying
• PERSISTENCE - i.e. how long a person
continues trying

3. Theories of motivation
Content theories (pp.49)
• Two-factor theory ( Hersberg): intrinsic and extrinsic
•Types of needs: classification of needs: deficiency versus growth
• Hierarchy of needs (e.g. Maslow): ordering of need by relative
priority
Process theories
• Expectancy theory (Vroom; Porter & Lawler): : a rational estimate of
the likely result of their behaviour
• Goal theory ( Locke)
• Equity theory ( Adams)

6. Content Theories
1.Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow (pp.56)
 There is a hierarchy of 5 needs---physiological,
safety,social,esteem,& self-actualization---and as
each need is sequentially satisfied,the next need
becomes dominant
 review:1.intuitively
logical,ease of understanding,
receiving wide recognition, particularly among
practicing managers. 2.little empirical support

7. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink,
warmth, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order,
law, limits, stability, etc.
3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family,
affection, relationships, etc.
4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery,
independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial
responsibility, etc.
5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential,
self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak
experiences.

8. Content Theories
2. ERG theory (Alderfer, pp.58)
 There are three groups of core needs: existence,
relatedness and growth
 Difference:(1) more than one need may be operative at
the same time,(2) if the gratification of a higher level
needs is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower level need
increases
 Maslow: a rigid step like progression. ERG:contains a
frustration-regression dimension
 Several studies have supported the ERG theory:natives
of Spain & Japan place social needs before their
physiological requirements

9. Content Theory
3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory
 Acquired needs theory.
Developed by David McClelland.
Three needs — achievement, affiliation, and
power — are acquired over time, as a result of
experiences.
Managers should learn to identify these needs
and then create work environments that are
responsive to them.
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10. Content Theory
3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory
 Need for achievement.
The desire to do something better or more
efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex
tasks.
High need for achievement people:
Prefer individual responsibilities.
Prefer challenging goals.
Prefer performance feedback.
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11. Content Theory
3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory
 Need for affiliation.
The desire to establish and maintain friendly and
warm relations with others.
High need for affiliation people:
Are drawn to interpersonal relationships.
Seek opportunities for communication.
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12. Content Theory
3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory
 Need for power.
The desire to control others, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for others.
High need for for power people:
Seek influence over others.
Like attention.
Like recognition.
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13. Content Theory
3.McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory
 Research evidence on acquired needs theory.
Identification of the need profiles that are
required for success in different types of jobs.
People can be trained to develop the need for
achievement, particularly in developing nations.
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14. Content Theories
4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
Also known as Two Factor theory.
Portrays two different factors — hygiene factors
and motivator factors — as the primary causes
of job dissatisfaction and job satisfaction .
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15. Content Theories
4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 Hygiene factors. (Mostly Extrinsic)
Sources of job dissatisfaction.
Associated with the job context or work setting.
Improving hygiene factors prevent people from
being dissatisfied but do not contribute to
satisfaction.
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16. Content Theories
4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 Motivator factors. (Mostly Intrinsic)
Sources of job satisfaction.
Associated with the job content.
Building motivator factors into the job enables
people to be satisfied.
Absence of motivator factors in the job results in
low satisfaction, low motivation, and low
performance.
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17. Content Theories
4. Motivation-Hygiene Theory

18. Problems with Content Theories
 Not specific about what behaviours and rewards
satisfy which needs.
Neglect the impact of the social context on
people’s interpretation of their needs.
People do not necessarily strive to move up the
hierarchy - at least, not through their work.
How to define needs?

19. Process Theories
1. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964) pp.51
Motivation ( M)=Expectation (E) x Valence
Where: Expectancy - If I tried would I be able to
perform the action?
Valence - How much do I value those
outcomes?

21. Process Theories
2. Goal-setting Theory (Locke,pp.51)
A goal is a target level of performance
If a goal is: difficult
specific
And if a person: accepts the goal
feels committed to it
gets feedback on their progress
Then their performance improves because:
their behaviour is focused
they try hard
they keep trying
they develop strategies

22. SLIDE 9.19

23. Some “live issues” in Goal-Setting
• How to enhance goal commitment (participative?)
• Who defines “challenging”?
• Conflict between goals
Individual v. group
Competing personal goals
• Goals set Vs dynamic environment

24. Process theories
3.Equity theory (Adams, 1963, pp.65)
 Individuals compare their job inputs & outcomes with
those of others & then respond so as to eliminate any
inequities
 Minor qualifications:
1. people have a great deal more tolerance of
overpayment inequities than of underpayment
inequities.
2. not all people are equity sensitive,such as benevolent
types

25. Process theory
3.Equity theory

26. Motivation and Job Design
Hackman and Oldham (1980, pp.73)
Motivation through design of work.
Five “Core Job Dimensions”
1. Skill Variety
2. Task Identity
3. Task Significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback

28. So…what do all these theories add up to?
1. Successful work performance can arise from many
different needs/motives.
2. People need to believe they can perform effectively if
they try.
3. The rewards for good performance should actually be
desired by the people concerned.
4. What constitutes good performance should be clearly
defined.
5. People need feedback on their performance.
6. People’s values and identity matter.