Rating scales are tools used to systematically measure attitudes, behaviors, and other psychological variables. They involve assigning numbers or descriptions to represent degrees of a concept. There are various types of rating scales such as numerical, descriptive, and graphical scales. Developing a good rating scale requires identifying important traits, clearly defining scale points, and pilot testing the scale. Rating scales can measure things like personality, job performance, and student behavior, but require careful construction to avoid bias.

1. TOOLS OF RESEARCH
BACHELOR OF EDUCATION
By:
Dr Rakhi Sawlani

2. What are TOOLS
The various method of data gathering involve the use of
appropriate recording forms. These are called tools or
instruments of data collection.
The major tools of research in education can be classified broadly into the
following categories :
A. Psychological Test
E.g. Achievement Test, Aptitude Test, NRT/CRT, Intelligence Test
B. Inquiry forms
E.g. Questionnaire , Scale - Rating Scale, Attitude Scale, Reaction
Scale
C. Schedule
E.g. Observation Schedule, Interview Schedule

3. TEST

4. SYNOPSIS
 TEST: Definition and Purpose
 Criteria of Good Test
 Types of Tests
 Difference between Individual Test and Group Test, Oral Test and Written
Test, Objective Test and Subjective Test, Speed test and power test
 Difference between performance & paper pencil test
 Difference between Standardised and Non-standardised Test
 Difference between Formative and Summative test
 Difference between NRT and CRT
 Difference between Achievement & Aptitude Test
 Other tests – Culture-free Test, Cognitive Test, Diagnostic Test, Intelligence
Test,

5. Test : Definition and Purpose
A series of question or problem designed to determine the knowledge ,
intelligence and abilities or performance in a given domain is known as
Test.
 PURPOSE OF TEST:
 Before instruction –To determine readiness or placement.
 During instruction-Used as a formative evaluation of learning.
 Summative evaluation of student.
 Measure for evaluating teaching effectiveness.
 Measures cognitive, affective and conative aspects
 Classification , selection, prediction
 Guidance and counseling
 Comparison, Diagnosis, Research
 Study of individual and group
 Use in industry/cooperative/military/Therapy/Education
 Use in day to day life

6. CRITERIA OF GOOD TEST
Practical Technical
Purposiveness Standard
Comprehensiveness Objective
Economical Discriminative
Easiness Reliable
Acceptibility Valid
Representativeness Norms
Usability Objectivity

7. Types of Tests
 On the basis of Administration - Individual Test / Group Test
 On the basis of Scoring - Objective / Subjective
 On the basis of Language - Verbal / Non- Verbal
 On the basis of Time Limit - Speed Test / Power Test
 On the basis of Form - Performance / Paper-Pencil Test
 On the basis of Learning - Diagnostic test / Remedial test
 On the basis of Evaluation - Formative Test/ Summative Test
 On the basis of Standard - Standardized / Non-Standardized
 On the basis of Nature of traits - Achievement tests / Aptitude
test/ Ability and skill test / personality Test / Cognitive Test/
Intelligence Test, Prognostic Test

8. Difference between Speed Test/ Power Test
Written test- it is a test where
answers to questions are written by
the test taker.
Group test- It is one administered
to a group of students.
Subjective test- It is a paper-and-
pencil test which is not easily
quantified as students are given the
freedom to write their answer to a
question, such as an essay test.
Thus, the answer to this type of test
is divergent.
Power Test
 To check power of an individual
 No time limit
 Eg. Personality Inventory, Raven
/Advance Progressive Matrices
Oral test- It is a test wherein the test
taker gives his answer orally.
Individual test- It is a test administered
to one student at a time. These are
typically more accurate than group-
administered.
Objective test- it is a test paper and
pencil test wherein students’ answers
can be compared and quantified to yield
a numerical score. This is because it
requires convergent and specific
response.
Speed Test
 To check speed of an individual
 Time limit
 Eg. Bank Exam, Net Exam, CBI

9. Difference between Performance/ Paper-Pencil Test
Performance Test
 Task has to be performed in
certain time limit
 It can be both Speed and power
both as well as verbal and non
verbal.
 It is one which the test taker
creates an answer or a product
that demonstrates his knowledge
or skill, as in cooking and
baking.
 Eg. Alexander pass along, Bhatia
battery
Paper-Pencil Test
 Test to be ticked by pencil on
paper
 It can be subjective or objective
in nature

10. Difference between Formative Test/Summative Test
Formative Test
 It serves the twin
purposes of feedback to
students in monitoring
the progress of learning
at regular and frequent
intervals and to the
teachers on the efficacy
of their learning.
 Eg. Intext questions,
self-check questions,
Paper-pencil test, Skill
test, Oral test.
Summative Test
 Its purpose is to assess
and grade the overall
performance of students
at the end of a term,
semester or course in
order to determine the
extent to which the
instructional objectives
have been achieved.
 Eg. Teacher-made
achievement test, ratings
on various type of
performance

11. Difference between Standardized /Non-standardized test
Standardised Test
 Made after computing
proper process
 Made on norms
 It is a test prepared by
an expert or specialist.
 This type of test
samples behavior under
uniform procedures.
Non-Standardised Test
 It is one prepared by
teachers for use in the
classroom, with no
established norms for
scoring and
interpretation of results.
 It is constructed by a
classroom teacher to
meet a particular need.

12. Achievement Test
 Designed to measure what you already know.
Achievement testing serves many purposes :
 1. Assess level of competence
 2. Diagnose strength and weaknesses
 3. Assign Grades
 4. Achieve Certification or Promotion
 5. Advanced Placement/College Credit Exams
 6. Curriculum Evaluation
 7. Accountability
 8. Informational Purposes
Standardized Achievement tests can be :
 Norm-Referenced
 Criterion Referenced

13. Difference Between NRT and
CRT
DIMENSION
S
NORM REFERENCED TEST CRITERION REFERENCED TEST
-PURPOSE
OF
CONSTRUC
TION
-UTILITY
-STANDARD
-FOCUS OF
TEST
-SKILL
DEVELOPM
ENT
 They are those that are used,
constructed and interpreted to
provide a relative ranking of students.
 Useful for measuring performance
among students.
A relative standard of performance
is used for grading purposes.
Norm referenced assessment is the
process of evaluating(and grading)
the learning of students by
judging(and ranking) them against
the performance of their peer group.
Student achievement is reported for
broad skill areas , although some
norm referenced test do report
student achievement for individual
 They are those that are constructed
and interpreted according to a specific
set of learning outcome.
 Useful for measuring the mastery of
that subject, concepts or skills.
An absolute standard of performance
is set for grading purposes.
It focuses on whether a student’s
performance meets a predetermined
standard level , usually reflecting
mastery of skills being tested.
Student achievement is reported for
individual skills.
Eg. Test you took to get a driver’s

14. Difference contd.
DIMENSION
S
NORM REFERENCED TEST CRITERION REFERENCED TEST
PURPOSE
SELECTION
OF TEST
CONTENT
Classification of student is done
in a way that they can be placed in
remedial or gifted program.
To help teachers select students
for different ability level.
 According to how well it ranks
students from high achievers to low.
NRT is chosen how well it
discriminates among students.
More general content often
greater breadth of coverage.
To determine how well the student is
learning the desired curriculum and how
well the school is teaching that
curriculum.
To determine whether each student has
achieved specific Knowledge, skills or
concepts.
Measure specific skills which makes
up a designated curriculum.
How well it matches the learning
outcomes.
On basis of significance in curriculum.
More detailed content specification.

15. Differences contd.
DIMENSION
S
NORM REFERENCED
TEST
CRITERION REFERENCED
TEST
TEST
INTERPRET
ATION –
ITEM
CHARACTE
RSTICS
A student’s performance of an
NRT is interpreted in relation to the
performance of a large group of
similar students who took the test.
This type of information can
useful or deciding whether or not
students need assistance.
However the score gives little
information about what the student
actually knows or can do.
Each skill is usually tested by
less than four item.
Items vary in difficulty.
Item are selected that
discriminate between high and low
Comparison with the preset
standard for acceptable achievement.
Score is usually expressed as a
percentage.
Student achievement is reported
for individual skills.
Performance of student on each of
the educational goals or outcomes.
Each skill is tested by at least four
items in order to obtain an adequate
sample of student performance.
The items which test any given
skill are parallel in difficulty.

16. Merits and Demerits of NRT/CRT
DIMENSION
S
NORM REFERENCED
TEST
CRITERION REFERENCED
TEST
ADVANTAGE
S
DISADVANT
AGES
Student and teacher know what
to expect from test.
How the test will be conducted
or graded.
Easy for instructors to use.
Individual grade is determined
not only by his or her
achievements but also by the
achievement of others.
 It promotes competition rather
than cooperation.
Feeling of cooperation among
students.
 A student grade is not
influenced by the caliber of the
class.
It is difficult to set a reasonable
standard for students without a
fair amount of teaching
experience.
Most experience faculty set
criteria based on their knowledge
of how students usually performs ,
thus this test often become similar
to norm referenced test.

17. Achievement Tests Aptitude Tests
Measure academic skills related to cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domain.
Used in placing, advancing, and retaining
students
Tracking student progress over time
Identifying learning problems
designed to measure and communicate how
much students have learned in specified content
areas.
Eg. IGAP, CAT,
Measure potential or future
achievement in a particular field
Measure general abilities
developed over long periods of
time
Limited to a particular field like
music, math, reading readiness...etc
Different from intelligence tests
because aptitude is just one
aspect of intelligence
Eg. Pre-Bed exam, PET, PMT,
Aptitude tests, SAT,GRE
Achievement Tests Aptitude Tests
Measure academic skills related to
cognitive, affective and psychomotor
domain.
Used in placing, advancing, and retaining
students
Tracking student progress over time
Identifying learning problems
Designed to measure and communicate
how much students have learned in
specified content areas.
Eg. IGAP, CAT,
Measure potential or future
achievement in a particular field
Measure general abilities developed
over long periods of time
Limited to a particular field like
music, math, reading readiness...etc
Different from intelligence tests
because aptitude is just one aspect of
intelligence
Eg. Pre-Bed exam, PET, PMT,
Aptitude tests, SAT,GRE

18. Various other tests
Culture-fair/culture-free test:
 A test without cultural bias.
 This is very difficult to create
Cognitive Test
 Measure cognitive skills like knowledge, understanding,
application, synthesis, analysis, evaluation. Eg. Reasoning Test
Intelligence Test
 To test the ability to learn fast and to learn mentally difficult tasks
 Standardized tests designed to measure an individual’s ability to
acquire knowledge, capacity to think and reason in the abstract, and
ability to solve novel problems. Eg. Stanford-Binet, WAIS, WPPSI

19. Contd…
Diagnostic Tests are common in the areas of reading, mathematics,
spelling, and foreign languages are most common.
Usually given individually
Usually have more subtests and measure knowledge of a particular area in
detail
Provide information that teachers can use in order to instruct the child or
address weaknesses.
Designed to provide a detailed description of learners’ strengths and
weaknesses in specified skill areas.
Allows for the identification of specific strengths and weaknesses within a
subject area by subdividing the subject area into the underlying components.
Prognostic Tests :Aptitude tests which are designed to predict
achievement in specific school subjects.

20. SCALE

21. SYNOPSIS
 Scale: Meaning & Definition
 Rating Scale: Introduction & Definition
 Types of Rating Scale
 Construction of the Rating Scale
 Steps in Constructing Your Own Rating Scale
 Types of Rating Scale
 Merits of rating scales
 Defects of rating scales
 Attitude Scale: Definition & Types
 Reaction Scale

22. Scale: Meaning & Definition
 Scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point ( in terms of
some characteristics e.g. preference, favorableness etc.) and the
lowest point along with several intermediate points between these
two extreme points.
 Scaling is defined as “ a procedure for the assignment of numbers
(or other symbols) to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other
concepts.”
 Important Scaling Techniques
 Rating Scales – To make absolute judgement in terms against some
specified criteria.
 Ranking or comparative Scales – To make relative judgements
against other similar objects.

23. Rating Scale: Introduction
 Rating scale is an important technique of evaluation.
 Rating is the assessments of a person by another person.
 This is one of the oldest methods of personality assessment.
 This is a recording form used for measuring individual's attitudes,
aspirations and other psychological and behavioural aspects, and
group behaviour.
 A rating scale is a device by which the opinion concerning a trait
can be systematized.
Definition
 Barr & others define rating as: “Rating is a term applied to
expression of opinion or judgement regarding some situation,
object or character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale
of values. Rating techniques are devices by which such
judgements may be quantified”.

24. Types of Rating Scale
 Three point scale
Above Average / Average / Below Average
 Five point scale
Excellent / Very good / Good / Average / Poor
Strongly Agree/ Agree/ Undecided/Disagree/Strongly Disagree
 Seven point scale
Excellent / Very good/ Good/ Average /Below Average/ Poor /Very
Poor

25. Construction Of The Rating Scale
 Identify educationally significant traits.
 Clearly define the traits to be rated and the scale points to be
used.
 Avoid technical jargon. If slang will help convey the intent,
use it by all means.
 Express the traits to be rated as question rather then as
declarative statements.
 If the line showing the continuum is used, it should
follow immediately after the questions,
 Determine how discrimination you want the ratings and
divide the continuum accordingly. (Three to seven intervals).

26. Steps in Constructing Your Own Rating Scale
1. Decide what areas you want to measure (grooming, on-
task behavior)
2. For each area decide what characteristics you want to
measure (grooming- clean clothing, clean body)
3. Define a range for each characteristic
a. Decide how many points on the scale
b. State extremes- very good and very bad
c. State points between these extremes
4. Arrange items to form the scale
5. Design directions
6. Pilot test your scale
7. Make needed revisions, based on pilot test

27. TYPES OF RATING SCALES
 Numerical Rating scale
 Descriptive Rating Scale
 Graphical Rating Scale
 Score cards
 The rank Order Scale
 Method of Paired comparisons
 Man-To-Man Scale

28. Numerical Rating scale
In which numbers are assigned to each trait. If it is a
seven point scale, the number 7 represents the maximum
amount of that trait in the individual, and 4 represents the
average. The rater merely enters the appropriate number
after each name to indicate judgment of the person.
A B C D E F G
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

29. Descriptive Rating Scale
In which descriptive phrases or terms assigned to
each trait. The rater enters the appropriate phrase
after each name to indicate judgment of the person.
A B C D E
Excellent Good Average Below average
poor

30. Graphical Rating Scale
A straight line, may be represented by descriptive
phrases at various points. To rate the subject for a
particular trait a check mark is made at the
particular point.
Low Moral Good Moral High Moral
0 25 50 75 100

31. Score cards
 It is a type of scale in which whatever is being
rated is analyzed into its component parts. An
expert assigns each part of a maximum score.
 The rater assign a value to each item as he passes
judgement, and these values are totaled a final
score is pronounced.

32. MERITS OF RATING SCALES
Less subjective than casual observation,
An analytical judgment.
Helps comparison of individuals.
Stimulates person being rated.
Helpful in writing reports to parents
Helpful in filling out admission blanks for colleges
Helpful in finding out student needs
Making recommendations to employers.
Supplementing other sources of understanding about the
child
Stimulating effect upon the individuals who are rated.

33. DEFECTS OF THE RATING SCALES
1. Ambiguity
2. The personality of the rater –
- Halo effect or error
- Generosity error
- Severity error
- Central tendency Error
3. Logical error
4. Attitude of the rater.
5. Opportunity for adequate Observation.

34. Attitude Scale or Opinionaire
 The information form that attempts to measure the
attitude or belief of an individual.
 How people feel or what they believe is their attitude.
But it is difficult to describe and measure attitude.
 Researchers must depend upon what people says are
their beliefs and feelings. This is the area of opinion.
 Through the use of questions, or by getting people’s
expressed reaction to statement, a sample of their
opinions is obtained.

35. Types of attitude scale
Thurstone technique- Equal appearing interval scales
The list of statements is given to the subjects, who are
asked to check the statements with which they agree.
The median value of the statements that they check
establishes their score or quantifies their opinion.
Likert technique- Summated rating scale
It can be carried out without the panel of judges, yields
scores very similar to that of thurstone method. It takes
less time to construct. It assigns a scale value to each of
the five responses. Thus, the instrument yields score
for each respondent.

37. Reaction Scale
 It is used to check the reaction of respondents
towards the Scale prepared by the investigator.
 It consists of series of statements related to the
treatment or module prepared by the investigator.
 It is consists of equal number of positive and
negative statements.
 The respondents have to answer by choosing the
correct response out of the given multiple choices.

38. QUESTIONNAIRE

39. SYNOPSIS
 Questionnaire :Definition, Meaning
 Characteristics of the good questionnaire
 Qualities of a good questionnaire
 Appearance and layout
 Development of Questionnaire Construction
 Points to be kept in mind while developing the questionnaire
 Piloting the Questionnaire
 Steps in Questionnaire Construction
 Functions
 Types of Questionnaire
 Types of Response Scales in a Questionnaire
 Ways of administering a questionnaire
 Advantages
 Limitations
 Conclusion

40. Questionnaire: Definition
 A set of predetermined questions for all respondents that serves as a
primary research instrument in survey research designed to extract
specific information from the respondents is called as Questionnaire.
 Defined as “a list of questions sent to a number of persons for their
answers and which obtains standardized results that can be tabulated
and treated statistically”.
 It was invented by Sir Francis Galton, and is often used in
behavioral or social research.
 It serves four basic purposes:
• Collect the appropriate data
• Make data comparable and amenable to analysis
• Minimize bias in formulating and asking question.
• To make questions engaging and varied.

41. Meaning of Questionnaire
 Series of questions in written form.
 Indirect interview
 Widely used tool
 When to use
 Objective tool
 Factual data required
 Large sample
 Minimum cost & time
 Crossing Geographical limitations

42. Characteristics of a good questionnaire
1. Should be concerned with specific and relevant topic
2. Directions and wording should be simple and clear
3. Questions should be objective and short
4. Embarrassing questions, presuming questions, leading questions and
hypothetical questions should be avoided. Early questions should be
simple in design, friendly and easy to respond; on the other hand;
they should convey the theme of the study to the respondent.
5. The questionnaires should begin with an effort to awaken the
respondents’ interest. Important target questions should be asked in
the middle of the opinion survey.
6. All the questions related to personal information (name, income,
phone, address etc.) of the respondents should be either optional or
asked in the last section of the questionnaires.
7. Open ended questions should be placed in the later part of the
questionnaire and deliberately kept to the minimum.

43. Qualities of Good Questionnaire
EXTERNAL -
 Instructions
 Primary Information
 Font style and Type
 Grammar
 Quality, colour and size
of Paper.
 Proper space for
response.
 Postage
INTERNAL -
 Clarity and simplicity of
questions
 Validity and reliability
 As per age of subjects.
 Divisions as per
Objectives.
 Pilot study

44. Appearance and Layout of the Questionnaire
1. Questionnaire should be typed or printed, presented in a good order
2. It Should be attractive and clearly arranged.
3. Instructions should be clearly typed e.g. in bold are in capital with different font.
4. Spacing between the questions will help the respondent and the researcher while
analyzing the questionnaire.
5. Questionnaire should be at minimum number of sheets.
6. Keep any response boxes in line towards the right of the sheet to make it easy for
respondents.
7. If you intend to use a computer programme, allow spacing on the right of the sheet
for coding.
8. Look critically at your questionnaire and ask yourself what impression it would
give if you were the respondent.
9. Take care over the order of the questions. Leave sensitive issues to later in the
questionnaire. Start with straight forward, easy-to-complete questions and move on
to the more complex topics. So questions should be sorted out before start writing
a questionnaire.

45. Points to be kept in mind while developing the
questionnaire
Simplicity in language
Keep the number of questions to a minimum.
Ask questions that will contribute to your survey.
Limit each question to one idea or concept.
Avoid ambiguity
Avoid vague words
Avoid double negatives
Understand the should-would question.
Avoid Technical Terms and Ethnic Expressions
Avoid embarrassing questions, leading questions, Presuming
questions, Hypothetical questions, emotional or morally charged
questions.
Formulate your questions and answers to obtain exact
information and to minimize confusion.

46. Steps in Questionnaire Construction
Deciding type, writing a draft, pretesting, concluding with
specific procedures.
STEPS:
1. Decide what information should be sought
2. Decide what type of questionnaire should be used
3. Write a first draft of the questionnaire
4. Self-evaluation and External evaluation
5. Reexamine and revise the questionnaire
6. Pretest the questionnaire (Pilot Study)
7. Edit the questionnaire and specify the procedures for its use.
8. Second Pre-test if necessary
9. Preparing final Copy

47. Piloting the Questionnaire
 This is the most important step in preparing your
questionnaire.
 It should be tried out on a small group of people (3-10)
similar to the population of the study.
 The purpose of the piloting exercise is to find out the
time taken to complete the questionnaire, to see
whether wording and format create any problem, how
well your cover letter motivates your respondents and
how clear your instructions, questions, and answers
are.
 Researcher will then review the questionnaire with the
test takers and discuss all points that were in any way
confusing and work together to solve the problems.

48. Distribution and Return of Questionnaire
 Questionnaire can be distributed Personally or By Post.
 Researcher should try first to distribute questionnaire
personally if not possible mailing services can be used.
Self-addressed stamped envelop should be included
with questionnaire.
 Two weeks is a reasonable time for completion. Give
the precise day and date for the return rather the
instruction to return the questionnaire with in two
weeks.
 A letter is sent with questionnaire explaining the
purpose of the research which is called a cover letter or
Forwarding Letter.

49. Development of Questionnaire
 Objectives
 Content analysis
 Combination of Types of questions.
 Sequence of questions.
 Statistical techniques for data analysis
 Questions- clear, correct, to the
point, appropriate nos.
 Reliability and validity

50. TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE
Based upon the type of format
 Structured / Non Structured
Based upon the type of response
 Open / Closed / Mixed
Based upon the method of administering
 Fact / Opinion
Based upon the type of media
 E-mail / Web based
Based upon the type of Mode
 Live / Distance
Based upon the method of administering
 Mail / Face-to-face

51. Structured / Non Structured
 The structured
questionnaire contains
definite, concrete and
directed questions
 Non-structured
questionnaire is often
used in interview and
guide. It may consist
of partially completed
questions.
Structured Questionnaire Non-Structured Questionnaire

52. Open / Closed
1. Verbal or open or unstructured Format
 Respondent is free to give answer in his
own words i.e. expected response is a word,
a phrase or an extended comment.
 Advantages
 Good for collecting subjective data.
 Mostly used in qualitative research.
Disadvantages.
 First, their very nature requires them to be
read individually.
 There is no way to automatically tabulate
or perform statistical analysis on them.
 More costly in both time and money
 May not be practical for lower budget or
time sensitive evaluations.
 Require more thought and time on the part
of the respondent.
2. Closed or structured Format
 Requires short and check responses.
 Provide space for making ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or
just a ‘check’ from a suggested responses.
 Advantages
 It takes a little time to answer
 It keeps the respondents in the subject
 It is relatively subjective
 It is fairly easy to tabulate and analyse
 Draw backs of the closed form:
 Doesn’t provide any opportunity to
respondent to express his views clearly, no
scope for explanatory information.
 Usually take the form of a multiple-choice
question.
 They are easy for the respondent to give the
required information in a very explicit way.

53. Fact / Opinion
The respondent is
expected to give
information of facts
without any reference to
his opinion or attitude
about them.
The respondent gives the
information about the
facts with his own
opinion and attitude.
Fact Opinion

54. TYPES OF QUESTIONS
• Demographic Questions : These are also known as classifier or
background question such as age, gender, standard, level of assignment,
urban-rural background, caste, religion and so on.
• Contingency Questions : A question that do not apply to them (For
example, asking an engineer if he has ever been to a school).
• Matrix Questions : Identical response categories are assigned to multiple
questions.
• Closed-ended Questions : In this type of questions, respondents’ answers
are limited to a fixed set of responses. It include (i) questions that could
be answered in a Yes/No,
• (ii) Multiple Choice questions wherein the respondent has several option
from which to choose (iii) Scaled questions in which responses are graded
on a continuum.

55. Contd…..
• Open-ended Questions : In this type of questions, no options or
predefined categories are suggested. Examples of types of open
ended questions include
• (i) Completely unstructured questions such as “What is your
opinion of UGC’s functioning?”
• (ii) Word association in which words are presented and the
respondent mentions the first word that comes to mind
• (iii) Sentence completion in which respondents complete an
incomplete sentence. For example, “The most important reason for
my decision to join this college is . . .”
• (iv) Story completion in which respondents complete an incomplete
story.
• (v) Picture completion in which respondents fill in an empty
conversation balloon and
• (vi) Thematic apperception test

57. Types of Response Scales in a Questionnaire
• Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options such as Yes or
No.
• Nominal-Polychotomous, where the respondent has more than two
unordered options such as Which methods of teaching do you
prefer : (i) Lecture, (ii) Demonstration, (iii) Role Playing, (iv)
Project Method.
• Ordinal- Polychotomous, where the respondent has more than two
ordered options such as (i) Highly Effective, (ii) Effective, (iii)
Moderately Effective, (iv) Ineffective and (v) Highly Ineffective.
•
• Continuous, where the respondent is presented with a continuous
scale such as rate the quality of education in this institution on a
scale of 1 to 10.

58. Ways of Administering a Questionnaire
1. Collective Administration - One of the best way of administering a
questionnaire is to obtain a captive audience such as students in
classroom, people attending a function. Following things to be kept in
mind before administration:
 Prior Appointment with concerned authorities
 Respondents taken in to confidence
 Instructions and expectation
 Tackling queries
2. Administration in a public places - Sometimes you can administer a
questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping Center, health center,
hospital, school or pub, it is dependent upon the type of study population
3. The mailed questionnaire - The most common approach to collecting
information is to send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by
mail

59. Advantages of Questionnaire
1. Allows a wider range and distribution of the sample than the interview method.
2. Provides greater access to more educated respondents and to persons in higher
income brackets.
3. Provides an opportunity for respondents to give frank Anonymous answers.
4. Allows greater economy of effort (i.e.. a single instrument. duplicated and
distributed to numerous respondents. can produce a large amount of data).
5. Can be constructed so that quantitative data are relatively easy to collect and
analyze.
6. Can be designed to gather background information about respondents as well as
original hard-to-obtain data.
7. Facilitates the collection of large amount of data in a short period of time.
8. Allows the corrections in exploratory studies, of insightful information about a
relatively unexplored problem area or subject.
9. Can be completed at the leisure of respondents-within time limits set by the
surveyor-without imposing on research subjects
10. Because of its fixed format, helps to eliminate variation in the questioning process

60. Limitations of Questionnaire
1. Precludes personal contact with respondents, perhaps causing the investigator to gain
insufficient knowledge about participants in a study.
2. Does not allow respondents to qualify ambiguous questions
3. If the prepared instrument does not arouse respondent emotions (i.e., when the
questionnaire is too impersonal) valid responses might not be elicited.
4. Poorly worded or direct questions might arouse antagonism or inhibitions on the part of
respondents
5. Difficulty in obtaining responses from a representative cross section of the target
population. Hence, Collection is a challenge.
6. Because opinionated respondents might be more likely than other subjects to complete
and return it, use of a questionnaire might lead to non response bias.
7. Difficult to analyze.
8. Environmental effects.
9. Can be administered only on subjects with considerable amount of education.
11. Misinterpretation or unintelligible reply

61. Conclusion
 When properly constructed and responsibly administered,
questionnaires become a very important and powerful evaluation
tool by which statements can be made about specific groups or
people or entire populations.
 The questionnaire provides a standardized data-gathering
procedure.
 Questionnaire design is a long process that demands careful
attention.
 Questionnaire are the main and easy way collecting data but the
questionnaire must be highly reliable and valid.
 Using standardized questionnaires will give us the appropriate data
and will yield a valid study
 One must follow all the basic guidelines and methods of
constructing a questionnaire and test it before using it.

62. SCHEDULE

63. SYNOPSIS
 Schedule: Introduction and Definition
 Salient features and Purpose of schedule
 Steps in framing a Schedule
 Form and layout of schedule
 Type of questions in schedule
 Types of schedules
 Observation Schedule: Introduction, Meaning, Purpose ,
Characteristics, Types, Precautions, Advantages,
Limitations.
 Interview schedule: Meaning, Types, How to conduct an
Interview, Requirements of a good Interview, Advantages,
Limitations

64. Schedule: Introduction
 It is the form containing some questions or blank tables to be filled in by the
research workers after getting information from the informants about their opinion,
attitude, preferences or suggestions about some matter.
 The schedule may thus contain two types of questions: (i) Direct question (ii) Form
of a table.
 Schedule and Questionnaire are similar in nature but the difference lies in its
construction and usage.
Definition - A schedule is a structured set of questions which are usually
asked orally and recorded in writing by the interviewer.
Salient features:
 The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and
noted by him.
 The list of questions is a formal document; it need not be attractive.
 The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.

65. Purpose of Schedule
 To provide a standardised tool for observation and interview in order to attain
objectivity.
 To act as memory tickler for interviewer or observer and keeps him reminded of
the different aspects that are to be observed.
 To facilitate the work of tabulation and analysis.
Steps in Framing a Schedule
 Study the different aspects of the problem
 Subdivide the problem to get necessary information
 Framing of actual questions
 Serialisation of questions
 Testing the validity of Schedule
Contents of Schedule:
i. Introductory part
ii. Main schedule
iii. Instructions

66. Form and layout of a Schedule
 Quality and durability of paper
 Size of schedule
 Length of schedule
 Organisation of units
 Margin
 Spacing
 Printing
 Use of pictures

67. Types of questions in a schedule
Following types of questions are
preferred:
 Open-end questions
 closed questions
 Pictorial questions
 Dichotomous questions
 Multiple-choice questions
 Ranking items of questions

68. Following type of questions should be avoided:
 Long or circumlocutory questions
 Ambiguous questions
 Leading questions
 Complex questions
 Presuming questions
 Personal questions
 Questions involving memory
 Embarrassing questions
 Hypothetical questions
 Unrelated, Unnecessary, Upsetting

69. Types of schedules
 Observation schedule – In these schedules, the
observer records the activities and responses of an
individual or a group under specific conditions. It
needs one or more research workers for their
completion.
 Interview schedule – In this, an interviewer presents
the questions of the schedule to the interviewees and
records their responses on blank spaces.
 Others: Rating Schedules, Document Schedules,
Evolutional Schedules.

70. Observation Schedule

71. Observation Schedule: Introduction
 This is a form on which observations of an object or a
phenomenon are recorded. The items to be observed
are determined with reference to the nature and
objectives of the study. They are grouped into
appropriate categories and listed in the schedule in the
order in which the observer would observe them.
 The schedule must be as devised as to provide the
required verifiable and quantifiable data and to avoid
selective bias and misinterpretation of observed items.
The units of observation must be simple, and
meticulously worded so as to facilitate precise and
uniform recording.

72. Observation Schedule: Meaning and
Purpose
 Observation is a technique in which the behavior of research
subjects is watched and recorded without any direct contact. It
involve the systematic recording of observable phenomena or
behavior in a natural setting.
 It does not rely on what people say they do, or what they say they
think. It is more direct than that. Instead, it draws on the direct
evidence of the eye to witness events first hand.
 It is a more natural way of gathering data. Whenever direct
observation is possible it is the preferable method to use.
Purpose of Observation Schedule
 To collect data directly.
 To collect substantial amount of data in short time span.
 To get eye witness first hand data in real like situation.
 To collect data in a natural setting.

73. Characteristics of Observation
 It is systematic.
 It is specific.
 It is objective.
 It is quantitative.
 It‘s result can be checked and verified.
 It is a Physical as well as mental activity.
 It is Selective and purposeful, not random
 Observation is efficient as it involves scientific thinking.
 The record of observation should be made immediately.
 Expert observer first of all observes the situation and then
collects data.
 It establish relationship between cause and effect of social
events, social equalities and inequalities.

74. TYPES OF OBSERVATION
 Participant and non participant observation.
 Controlled and uncontrolled observation
 Structured and unstructured observation
 Overt (subject are aware) and Covert (unaware)

75. Participant and non participant observation
In participant observation, the
observer becomes more or less
one of the groups under
observation and shares the
situation as a visiting stranger, an
attentive listener, an eager learner
or as a complete participant
observer, registering, recording
and interpreting behavior of the
group.
 The observer observes through one
way screens and hidden
microphones.
 The observer remains aloof from
group.
 He keeps his observation as
inconspicuous as possible.
 The purpose is to observe the
behavior in a natural setting.
 The subject will not shift his
behavior or he will not be
conscious that someone is
observing his behavior.
Participant Observation Non-Participant Observation

76. Controlled and uncontrolled observation
 A detailed observation plan
observation schedules
 Mechanical appliances like
photos, tape-recorders,
Socio-metric scales are
used.
 These controls increase
precision, reduce bias,
ensure reliability,
systematic procedures and
increase objectivity.
 Most of the knowledge
about the social
phenomena is generally
derived through
uncontrolled
observation only.
 To get a spontaneous
picture of life and
persons, this type of
observation is used.
s
Controlled observation Uncontrolled observations

77. Structured and Unstructured observation
 Investigator knows what
aspects of the situation
under study are relevant
to his research purposes
and is in a position
therefore to develop a
specific plan for making
and recording
observations before he
actually begins the
collection of data.
 Mostly used as an exploratory
technique.
 Observer does not know in
advance which aspects of the
situation will prove relevant
and the observer’s
understanding of the situation
is likely to change as he goes
along. This in turn, may call
for changes in what he
observes.
 The unstructured observation
is flexible and allows for
changes in focus from time to
time.
Structured observation Unstructured observation

78. Precautions in Observation
 Appropriate tools
 Field notes
 Informal approach
 Building rapport
 What to observe
 Use of audio visual devices

79. Advantages and Limitations of
observation schedule
Advantages
 Natural response
 Real collection of a data
 All round data
 Self experience
 Understanding the subject.
 Useful for sociological research.
 Useful for linear research.
Limitations:
 Subjectivity
 Temporary form of data is acquired.
 Difficult to analyze the data.
 Time consumable.
 Practical difficulties.

80. INTERVIEW
SCHEDULE

81. Interview schedule
Meaning:
 Series of a questions to be asked in an interview is called Interview
Schedule.
 One to one direct communication between researcher and subject
for collection of data.
 A technique to collect information from respondents through an
interactive and real – time contact.
 It is a widely used tool to access people’s experiences, opinions,
inner perceptions, attitudes and feelings.
 One of the powerful and important tool for data collection in social
researches.
Comparison with Questionnaire
 Interview schedule and mailed Questionnaire are widely used in
surveys. Both are complete lists of questions on which information
is elicited from the respondents. The basic difference between them
lies in recording responses. While the interviewer fills out a
schedule, the respondent completes a questionnaire.

82. Types of Interview schedule
 Structured or Directive(for research)
 Semi-structured ( flexible but structured)
 Unstructured or Non-directive ( free talk on issues)
 Focused ( in depth talk on an issue )
 Clinical
 Depth

83. Structured or Directive Interview
 This is an interview made with a detailed standardized
schedule.
 The interviewer reads the questions exactly as they
appear on the interview schedule and in the same order.
 Each question is asked in the same way in each
interviews.
 This type of interview is used for large-scale social
surveys where researchers are trying to collect large
volumes of data from a wide range of respondents.
 This type of interview is rigidly standardised and
formal.

84. Semi – Structured or Flexible Interview
 The interviewer also has a clear list of issues to be
addressed and questions to be answered.
 There is some flexibility in the order of the topics. In this
type of interviewee is given chance to develop his ideas and
speak more widely on the issues raised by the researcher.
 The answers are open-ended and more emphasis is on the
interviewee elaborating points of interest.
 Semi-structured interviews are conducted with a fairly
open framework which allow for focused,
conversational, two-way communication.
 They can be used both to give and receive information.

85. Unstructured or Non-directive Interview
 The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely about
a given topic with a minimum of prompting or guidance.
 In this type of interview, a detailed pre-planned schedule is not
used. Only a broad interview guide is used.
 The interviewer avoids channeling the interview directions.
 This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in
surveys. It gives opportunity for in depth investigations.

86. Focus Group Interview
This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator
attempts to focus the discussion on the actual effects of a
given experience to which the respondents have been exposed.
Characteristics of Focus Groups:
 FGs involve people (4-12 people)
 FGs are conducted in a series
 FGs are a data collection procedure
 FGs make use of qualitative data
 FGs have a focused discussion
 Participants are homogeneous and unfamiliar with each other

87. Clinical Interview
 This is similar to the focused interview but with a
subtle difference.
 While the focused interview is concerned with the
effects of a specific experience, clinical interview is
concerned with broad underlying feelings or
motivations or with the course of the individual's
life experiences.

88. Depth Interview
 This is an intensive and searching interview aiming
at studying the respondent's opinion, emotions or
convictions on the basis of an interview guide.
 This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to
encourage free expression of his/her feeling,
emotion, his knowledge about particular area of
study.

89. How to conduct an Interview
 Interview schedule should as per objectives.
 Planning of time, duration, place, mode of recording.
 Follow Formalities.
 Respect not to answer right of subject.
 Use of appropriate Language.
 Positive body language.
 Directing the interview.
 Questioning – proper stress and tone, use of sub questions if
required.

90. Requirements of a Good Interview
 Proper preparation.
 Skillful execution and
 Adequate recording and interpretation
 For eliciting data from illiterate
 For eliciting data from busy persons
 For eliciting data of unique nature
 For eliciting data of confidential nature
 For eliciting data of sensitive nature
 Careful drafting of the schedule
 Administration procedure
 Storage of date collected

91. Advantages of Interview
 Depth Information
 Insights
 Equipment
 Information Priorities
 Flexibility
 Validity
 High response rate
 Therapeutic

92. Limitations
 Hesitation to express
 Vague
 Time restrictions
 Subjective
 Researcher’s influence
 Consciousness
 Manipulated/polished/sophisticated/socially accepted responses may be
preferred.
 Inadequate response
 Interviewer's bias
 Non-availability
 Difficulty in data analysis
 Less Reliability
 Inhibitions
 Invasion of Privacy
 Resources