Research methodology

RESEARCH METHODOLOGYRESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKA CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
byby
Chandra P. Rijal, PhDChandra P. Rijal, PhD
Managing DirectorManaging Director
Edify International Pvt. Ltd.Edify International Pvt. Ltd.
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Doc5
rijal@edifyintl.org

Research MeansResearch Means
 Systematic and objective investigation of aSystematic and objective investigation of a
subjectsubject or aor a problemproblem in order to discoverin order to discover
relevant information.relevant information.
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Investigation on a subject refers to …
 Establishing a conceptual, or theoretical
understanding about something to be promoted as
part of disciplinary studies.
 For example, development of a theory in public
health.
Investigation on a problem refers to …
 Assessing, diagnosing, exploring, or evaluating
various facets pertaining to a management problem.
 For example, what percentage of first time
Bhatbhateni Superstores visitors come back again to
this place for shopping?
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Discovery of a relevant information refers
to …
 Establishing theoretical grounds for a disciplinary
study, or
 Deducting problem solution under a defined
situation.
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So, what does it mean by research in you
opinion?
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Why is a research conducted?
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Types of Research
Basically, there are only two types of research
a.Fundamental Research
b.Applied Research
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Fundamental Research
Known as basic or pure research; seeks to expand
the boundaries of knowledge in the given area.
For example, development of research methods,
propagation of new theories, conduction of
academic research studies.
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Applied Research
 Known as a decisional research
 Attempts to use existing knowledge for resolving
the current problem.
For example?
 What are the customer needs, expectations, and
problems associated to our offerings?
 How did the general public like the prevailing
governance system?
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Lets repeat it again…
¤ A research may be considered as a
systematic and objective
investigation that involves
systematic design, collection,
preparation, interpretation and
reporting of information needed to
solve specific problems or promote
a domain of learning.
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1.1. AssessmentAssessment
2.2. ExplorationExploration
3.3. EvaluationEvaluation
4.4. ExaminationExamination
5.5. ComparisonComparison
6.6. EstimationEstimation
7.7. PropagationPropagation
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Lev
els
Nature of
objective
Objective description
1.
AssessmentAssessment To observe the situation and infer results
2.
ExplorationExploration To uncover the reality facing a problem
3.
EvaluationEvaluation To measure the level of existence
4.
ExaminationExamination To test the existence
5.
ComparisonComparison To compare and contrast between given
variables
6.
EstimationEstimation To project probable level of happening
7.
PropagationPropagation To declare a concept, theory, system or model
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Step 1
Define the
problem and
research
objectives
Step 2
Design the
research with
plan for
collecting data
Step 3
Implement
the research
- collect,
prepare and
analyze the
data
Step 4
Produce
results,
interpret ,
deduce
inferences
and report
the findings

 Specification of methods and procedures for
obtaining the information needed
 A plan or organizing framework for conducting
the study and collecting data
 Serves as the blueprint of the detailed procedures
and rationales of a research project
 An essential part of research methodology
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 What is the study all about?
 Why is the study being carried out?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What tools and techniques of data collection will
be used?
 How will the issue of validity and reliability be
addressed?
 What type of data are required?
 How much time will the study require?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used ?
 How will the data be analyzed and interpreted?
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 Serves as a foundation to formulate and guide
the research study
 Supports in better planning & execution of the
research methodology
 Useful in the estimation of probable research
errors and handling strategies
 Maintains necessary control over the contents
of the study
 Makes the study more systematic, and
effective Doc5rijal@edifyintl.org
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 Determine the exploratory, descriptive, or causal
phases of the research
 Determine the information needed
 Specify the measurement and scaling procedures
 Construct and pretest appropriate forms of data
collection
 Specify sampling process and sample size
 Develop a plan of data analysis and presentation
 Develop a monitoring and control mechanism to
facilitate the overall research function
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On the basis of the study techniques undertaken,
research designs can primarily be categorized
into TWO forms:
1. Exploratory Research Designs1. Exploratory Research Designs
2. Conclusive Research Designs2. Conclusive Research Designs
a. Descriptive Research Designs
b. Causal Research Designs
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Observational
Research
Gathering data
by observing
people, actions
and situations
(Exploratory)
Experimental
Research
Using groups of
people to
determine
cause and
effect
relationships
(Causal)
Survey Research
Asking
individuals
about attitudes,
preferences or
behaviors
(Descriptive)
Three Research Approaches

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Exploratory
Research
Exploratory
Research
Descriptive
Research
Descriptive
Research
Causal
Research
Causal
Research
Test hypotheses about cause and effect
relationships
X causes Y
Test hypotheses about cause and effect
relationships
X causes Y
Gathers preliminary information to define
the problem and suggest hypotheses
Literature search, expert interviews, focus
groups, case studies, company audits,
qualitative research
Gathers preliminary information to define
the problem and suggest hypotheses
Literature search, expert interviews, focus
groups, case studies, company audits,
qualitative research
Describes things as the market potential of
a product, consumer demographics and
attitudes
Secondary data analysis, surveys, observations,
panels, simulations
Describes things as the market potential of
a product, consumer demographics and
attitudes
Secondary data analysis, surveys, observations,
panels, simulations

Step 1: Define the Research Problem
Step 2: Estimate the value of the information to be
provided by the research
Step 3: Select the Data Collection Method
Step 4: Select the Measurement Techniques
Step 5: Select the Sample
Step 6: Select the Analytical Approach
Step 7: Evaluate the Ethics of the Research
Step 8: Specify the Time and Financial Cost
Step 9: Prepare the Research Proposal
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1. Problem Definition
2. Study Approach and Designs
3. Population and Sampling Strategies
4. Sources of Data
5. Instrumentation
6. Mechanism for Research Administration
7. Mechanism for Data Processing and Analysis
8. Confirmation of the Expertise Involved
9. Timeframe of the Study
10. Cost of the Study
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MeaningMeaning
Known as a property of proposition beingKnown as a property of proposition being
studiedstudied
Also known as the constructs of aAlso known as the constructs of a
propositionproposition
A symbol to which we assign numerals orA symbol to which we assign numerals or
valuesvalues
Numerical value assigned to a variable isNumerical value assigned to a variable is
based on its propertiesbased on its properties
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Three General Examples of VariablesThree General Examples of Variables
1. Dichotomous Variables1. Dichotomous Variables
These variables are so called because they haveThese variables are so called because they have
TWO values, reflecting presence or absence of aTWO values, reflecting presence or absence of a
property.property.
For exampleFor example: pass or fail, exists or does not exist,: pass or fail, exists or does not exist,
employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no.employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no.
The dichotomous variables can be assigned with aThe dichotomous variables can be assigned with a
numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.
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2. Discrete Variables2. Discrete Variables
These are categorical variables.These are categorical variables.
For example, the demographic variables race orFor example, the demographic variables race or
religion are the examples of discrete variables.religion are the examples of discrete variables.
Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain canReligion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain can
be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4
respectively.respectively.
The numerical values assigned to these variablesThe numerical values assigned to these variables
will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.
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3. Continuous Variables3. Continuous Variables
These variables take on values with a given rangeThese variables take on values with a given range
or, in some cases, an infinite set.or, in some cases, an infinite set.
For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100,For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100,
age may be 2.5 years, present income of aage may be 2.5 years, present income of a
person could be Rs. 15000, you may discloseperson could be Rs. 15000, you may disclose
your property worth more than Rs. 500,000,000.your property worth more than Rs. 500,000,000.
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Sample vs. Population
Population = collection of ALL possible
observations
Sample = subset of a population
Random Sample
representative of a population
all observations have equal chance of
being selected

 Cost
 Time
 Inaccessibility of the population
 Accuracy
 Destruction of the observations
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Step 1: Define the
Population of
Interest
Step 1: Define the
Population of
Interest
Step 2: Choose
Data Collection
Method
Step 2: Choose
Data Collection
Method
Step 3: Choose
Sampling Frames
Step 3: Choose
Sampling Frames
Step 4: Select a
Sampling Method
Step 4: Select a
Sampling Method
Step 5: Determine
Sample Size
Step 5: Determine
Sample Size
Step 6: Develop and
Specify Operational
Plan
Step 6: Develop and
Specify Operational
Plan
Step 7: Execute
Operational Sampling
Plan
Step 7: Execute
Operational Sampling
Plan

 Probability vs. Nonprobability
 Probability
 members in the population have a known chance
(probability) of being selected into the sample
 Nonprobability
 the probability of selecting members from the
population is not known
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Define Population
Determine Sampling Frame
Determine Sampling Procedure
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience
Judgmental
Quota
Snow-ball
Determine Appropriate Sample Size
Execute Sampling Design

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Sampling
Methods
Sampling
Methods
Probability
Samples
Probability
Samples
Simple
Random
Simple
Random
ClusterCluster
SystematicSystematic StratifiedStratified
Non-
probability
Non-
probability
QuotaQuotaJudgmentJudgment
ConvenienceConvenience SnowballSnowball

Meaning
Data are the units, or, numbers, or facts that are
generated through observation.
Data can be qualitative as well as quantitative.
Considered as the backbone for the evidence of
every findings and decision alternatives in the
research.
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Data Objectives
Data objectives are derived from the research
objectives and comprise of what we have observed
to be lacking in the example.
Their determination mainly rests on the researcher,
to translate what the decision maker wants into a
specific description of the needed data.
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General Qualities Required
1.The measurement should be relevant and adequate to
the problem faced to provide key guidance in decision
making.
2.The data must be accurate in both --
i. Validity: Measure what they are supposed to,
and
ii. Reliability: On repeating the same method,
should
give the same results.
3. Data should be obtained quickly enough at an
affordable cost.
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Nature of Data
1. Facts:
 Include the measurements of anything that
actually exists or has existed.
 Facts, generally describe tangible things, they
also can be intangibles.
 They generally originate as the demographic,
sociological, psychographic, or behavioral types.
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2. Knowledge:
 That is what people know.
 The information true or false, exists or does not exist,
etc.
Example
Consumers awareness about a product or a brand.
3. Opinion
 How people perceive something.
 What they believe about attitudes.
 The mental sets or predisposition to act in some manner.
Example
Consumer perception regarding good or bad.
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4. Intentions:
 The acts that people have in mind to do.
 The expectations of their behavior
Example: Consumer interest upon a certain retailer.
5. Motives:
 Internal forces that cause people to behave as
they do.
 Motives may be instrumental ideas for identifying
the subjects about which the people will speak
freely.
Example: A certain consumer never liking wine.
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Functions of Data
1. Causation
2. Pay off
Here, ‘X’ is the causation and ‘Y’ is the pay off.
3. Description: Determination of causal variables
in the sample. E.g.: How many of them are ‘X’.
4. Identification: Identification of the particular
source.
e.g.: The name of person who took an interview, or
made an observation, name, address, and
locations of subjects, etc.
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Y = f(X)
‘X’ Causes ‘Y’

1. Primary Vs. Secondary
Primary Data
That originate from primary sources and are based
on observation or investigation or direct
questioning.
* Observation Method
* Interview Method
* Questionnaires
* Projective Techniques
* Content Analysis
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1. Primary Vs. Secondary
Secondary Data
That originate from secondary sources.
Data already available, collected and analyzed by
someone else.
* Publications
* Books
* Journals
* Magazines and Newspapers
* Reports
* Collateral Materials
* PR Messages
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2. Qualitative Vs. Quantitative
Qualitative Data: Psychological, perceptual, or conceptual
data that is not counted in numbers, rather coded as ‘good
or bad’, ‘interesting or boring’ etc.
Quantitative Data: Number based facts and figures.
Frequency of occurrence.
3. Personal Reporting
Data based on individual observation and reporting.
Can be qualitative as well as quantitative.
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Can be primary/secondary
Always primary

1. Internal
Data developed or gathered, maintained, and
preserved by the organization itself.
MIS is the best source for internal records.
MIS comprises of FOUR major components;
Management Research Systems (MRS), Internal
Database Systems (IDS), Management Intelligence
Systems (MIS), and Analytical Information Systems
(AIS).
Annual reports, collateral materials, press releases
etc.
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Primary

2. External
* Data generated from the published reports of
various bureaus, and public surveys.
Example:
EDIFY International conducting a salt consumption
behavior research study in Nepal, and the same
report findings to be used in other related future
researches.
Use of CBS - Nepal reports for various research
purposes.
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Secondary

1. Literature Reviews
* A secondary method of data collection.
* Facts gathered in the basis of reviews of various
publications, articles, journals, books, collateral
materials, reports, etc.
* Useful in providing the evidence to the results of
the primary observation.
* Mostly used in understanding the theoretical
phenomenon.
* Very essential in qualitative studies.
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2. Census
* Census represents the study of universe.
* Mostly conducted by the governments in long
periodical basis.
* Each and every component of the population is
the subject of the study.
* Most costly approach of data collection.
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3. Survey
* An alternative to census.
* Sample based study; study/observation through
population representation.
* Mostly used by the researchers.
* A primary method of data collection.
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4. Focus Group Observation
* A approach of group observation.
* A source for primary data collection.
* Useful in perceptual studies.
* The groups may comprise of 6 to 10 people.
* The issues are discussed by cross questioning
and sharing their views.
* Suitable in case of new product launch and
testing.
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Can be direct or
indirect, structured
or unstructured

5. Experiments
* A primary method of data collection.
* Can be field or lab experiment based.
* Mostly conducted by using the control groups.
* Most useful in new product testing.
* May be very costly incase of wrong selection of
control groups.
* Sometimes conducted by the help of various
physical tests; eye movements, pupil movements,
skin stimuli etc.
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6. Interviews
* A popular method of primary data collection.
* Data collected in the basis of personal interaction
with the respondents.
* Can be well-structured or less-structured.
* Useful when small size of observation is enough
for data collection.
* The individuals/subjects are the source of study.
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Data Reduction and Analysis
Data Reduction Process
Step I: Establishing field controls
Step II: Editing of data
Step III: Coding the data
Step IV: Transcribing
Step V: Creating new variables
Step VI: Calculating and
summarizing statistics
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis
Bivariate analysis
Multivariate analysis
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Presentation of a Report
I. Prefatory Part
Title Page
Signatory Page
Copy Rights
Acknowledgements
Executive Summary
Table of Contents
List of Tables and Graphs
List of Abbreviations
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II. Main Body
Introduction
Review of Literature
Research Methodology
Data Reduction, Presentation, and Analysis
Summary of Key Findings
Recommendations and Conclusions
III. Supplementary Part
Bibliography or References
Annextures
Appendixes
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Nature and Content of Ethical Issues
Participant Treatment
Issues
* Purpose shouldn't be
to sell merchandise
* Anonymity must be
protected
----------------------------
Ultraviolet ink
Hidden tape recorders
One-way mirrors
Fake long distance calls
Fake research firm
Right to safety
Right to be informed
Right to privacy
Right to choice
Client Treatment
Issues
* Methods used and
results should be
accurately reported
----------------------------
Confidentiality
Unqualified researcher
Proprietary information
Unnecessary research
Researcher Treatment
Issues
* Should not disseminate
conclusions that are
inconsistent with data
* Should not solicit
designs and deliver to
another for execution
----------------------------
Excessive requests
Reneging on promises
Availability of funds

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