LESSONS 1 & 2 BY KOTOR ASARE (Monday)F1.pptx

LESSON OBJECTIVES
• By the of this lesson, you will be able to:
• explain psychology in their own words
• define educational psychology
• redefine educational psychology
• discuss what constitute effective teaching
• discuss at least ten (10) fields in psychology
• discuss at least six (6) relevance of educational psychology
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KOTOR ASARE'S PRESENTATION- AAMUSTED
1

MEANING AND SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
• The term psychology is derived from the Greek word ‘‘Psyche’’
and ‘‘logos’’.
• ‘‘Psyche’’ means soul and ‘‘logos’’ means scientific study.
• Scientific study of soul.
• It later became to study of the mind then mental processes
• The study of the behaviour
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DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY
•The Scientific study of mental processes and behaviour
of an organism being it human, plant or animal.
•Behaviour can also be seen as an organism’s overt or
covert reaction towards any given stimulus
•Psychology is the scientific study of the activities of
individual in relation to his environment (Woodworth
&Marquis)
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THE OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY
1. The first and basic objective is to describe, that is, to observe and measure behavior and mental
processes
2. The second objective of psychology is to explain what the data mean. This is usually achieved
by formulating a theory that can explain the data
3. Because so many factors are involved in the manifestation of behaviour, psychologists rely on
the scientific method to test the accuracy of their theories. One test of a theory’s accuracy and
usefulness is its ability to predict behaviour and mental processes
4. The ultimate objective of psychology is the application of knowledge to promote human
welfare. Knowledge gained through psychological research touches almost every aspect of our
lives.
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GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
•To understand real life situations on the
basis of understanding (prediction)
•To employ scientific approach for
developing this understanding
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CLASSIFICATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology can be roughly divided into two major
areas:
•Research- which seeks to increase our knowledge
base(basic)
•Practice- through which our knowledge is applied to
solving problems in the real world (applied)
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BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
BASIC PSYCHOLOGY
•General/Normal
•Abnormal
•Developmental
•Experimental
•Social
APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY
• Educational
• Clinical
• Industrial
• Forensic
• Health
• Personality
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EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
• The science that discovers learning
• Skinner defines educational psychology as the branch of psychology which
deals with teaching and learning
• Crow and Crow (1973) say that educational psychology describes and
explains the learning experiences of an individual from birth through old
age.
• Educational psychology therefore tries to apply the psychological
principles, theories and techniques to human behaviour in educational
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DEFINITIONS CONT……
• Educational psychology is the scientific discipline concerned with the
development, evaluation, and application of principles and theories of
human learning.
• Peel (1956) says that educational psychology is the science of
education.
• Educational psychology therefore attempt to apply knowledge of
psychology to the field of education. In order words educational
psychology is the study of the experience and behaviour of the
learner in relation to educational environment.
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DEFINITION CONT…..
•In a much more comprehensive way, modern educational
psychology deals with the nature of learning and how it
takes place and the comprises topics such as laws ,
principles and theories of learning, remembering,
perceiving, forgetting, concept formation, thinking,
reasoning process, problem solving, transfer of learning
and major ways and means that maximise learning.
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DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY
•Educational psychology seeks to understand the
process of teaching and learning of the individual,
that is, how students learn, how teachers instruct,
how achievement depends on motivation, the
influence of social context, and interplay of
curriculum, instruction and assessment (Berlinder,
2001).
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FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
• To afford a thorough knowledge of the nature of the child
• To provide an understanding of the nature, aims, and purposes of
education
• To further an understanding and appreciation of the scientific
procedures by which the data of educational psychology are obtained
• To provide a significant process with particular emphasis upon the
guidance and control of mental and moral aspects.
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FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
• To provide an understanding of principles governing learning, together
with a knowledge of the techniques for guiding improvement in learning
• To present the theories underlying the measurement and evaluation of
mental abilities, aptitudes, achievements, interest and personality
organization
• To present the principles and conclusions regarding the prevention of all
types of maladjustments together with the approved practices for
achieving satisfactory adjustments
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PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL ISSUES
•Cognition
•Learning and learning strategies
•Individual differences
•Teaching and instruction
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•Motivation
•Intelligence
•Human development
•Special needs education
•Classroom discipline
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•Social relations in school
•Educational technology
•Assessment ( measurement and evaluation)
•Research methods
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REDEFINING EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
•Snow (1981) describes the work of educational psychology
best, by noting that ‘‘ our job is to psychologies about
educational problems and issues and not to bring
psychology to education, as if we were missionaries
carrying out the Lord’s work’’(as cited in Berlinder, 2000, p.26).
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EFFECTIVE TEACHING
•What do best and effective teachers do
differently from others?
•Effective teaching is often seen as the generic
term that is used to describe the successfulness
of a teaching and learning process.
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KEY INGREDIENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING
•Santrock (2001) identifies three such key ingredients
of effective teaching as follows:
•Professional knowledge and skills
•Commitment
•Profession growth
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KEY INGREDIENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING
PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS
• Subject matter competency
• Instructional strategies
• Goal-setting & instructional
planning
• Classroom management skills
PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS
• Motivational skills
• Communications skills
• Technological skills
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COMMITMENT AS KEY INGREDIENT TO EFFECTIVE
TEACHING
• Good attitudes
• Caring
• Enthusiastic
• Resourcefulness
• Confidence
• Sense of humour
• Confidence
• Works extra hour
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PROFESSIONAL GROWTH AS KEY INGREDIENT TO
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
•Developing a positive identity
•Seek advice from competent teachers
•Never stop learning
•Build up good resources and supports
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OVERVIEW OF SOME FIELDS OF STUDY IN
PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is a vast discipline, comprising of an interesting range
of specialities that have emerged as the field has progressed over
time. The scientific basis for modern psychology means it is ever-
evolving, with new developments being made, and frontiers being
explored every day by dedicated professionals and academics in the
field. Here we take a look at the core branches of psychology, and how
they contribute to our greater understanding of human behaviour:
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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
• Abnormal psychology- This branch of psychology studies irregular
patterns of behaviour, thought, and emotion. This may or may not be
considered in the context of a mental disorder. Whilst there is some
variance on what typifies ‘abnormal’, abnormal psychology
specifically, inspects behaviour in a clinical context to better
understand and contain behaviour considered to be statistically,
morally, or functionally deviant or aberrant.
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BEHAVIOURAL NEUROSCIENCE
Behavioural neuroscience -also known as biological psychology, and
closely aligned to developmental psychology, behavioural psychology
is the application of biological principles to the study of the
physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behaviour in
humans and other animals. It touches upon the nature of personality,
the causes of abnormal behaviour, reactions to stress, and the
effectiveness of therapy.
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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitive psychology- is another central area within the science of
behaviour and mind, cognitive psychology studies mental processes
including language, memory, intelligence, thinking, creativity,
perception, attention, and problem solving. This arm of psychology
actively overlaps with other disciplines within psychological study such
as educational psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental
psychology, social psychology, and even economics.
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COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Comparative psychology- this area of scientific study researches the
behaviour of (non-human) animals. There is an underlying assumption in
this field that many laws of behaviour can be applied across species, so
that any study of animals will produce phylogenetic knowledge
applicable to human beings. However, some researchers argue that this is
the not the sole purpose of comparative psychology and that there is great
value to be found in the focused study of species in isolation.
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CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
Cross-cultural psychology- cross-cultural psychology is the
scientific study of human behaviour and thought processes in the
context of different cultural conditions and with respect to their
variability and invariance. The purpose of this is to expand and
develop psychology by widening research methodologies to
recognise the impact of cultural variance upon behaviour,
language, and meaning.
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CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
Cultural psychology- cultural psychology is the study of the ways in
which a person’s psychological and behavioural tendencies are both
rooted in and influenced by their culture. The primary principle of
cultural psychology is that the mind and culture are inseparable and
mutually essential, which means that human beings shape their culture
in the same way that they are shaped by their culture.
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DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Differential psychology- strongly related with the other elements of
psychology, differential psychology assesses the ways individual
behaviours differ and the inner processes that affect these behaviours.
This is what sets differential psychology apart from other aspects of
psychology, where psychologists more often study groups of people, or
try to determine generalised psychological processes and apply them to
all individuals.
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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Developmental psychology- developmental psychology is the
scientific study of the ways and reasons why human beings change over
the course of their lives. By examining the various stages of life, from
childhood though adolescence to adulthood and aging, developmental
psychologists study aim to understand and explain how thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours change throughout life
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EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Experimental psychology- experimental psychology concerns the work
accomplished by those who apply experimental methods to psychological
study to identify and comprehend its underlying psychological processes.
This approach is undertaken by using human and animal subjects in
relation to a multitude of topics including but not exclusive to cognition,
learning, motivation, emotion, memory, sensation and perception
developmental process, and social psychology.
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MATHEMATICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Mathematical psychology- this approach to psychological research is
based on the mathematical modelling of perceptual, cognitive, and
motor processes, and has the goal of obtaining more exact hypotheses
to yield firmer empirical validations. It is grounded in established rules
that correlate quantifiable stimulus characteristics with quantifiable
behaviour, very often formed by ‘task performance’ or how a person
does with a given task.
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PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY
Personality psychology - researching personality and how it varies among
individuals, this area of study investigates individual psychological
differences, human nature, and the psychological similarities of people by
forming a coherent insight into an individual and their main psychological
processes. In this sense, ‘personality’ is described as a structured set of
characteristics that individually affect a person’s emotions, motivations,
behaviours, and thoughts in different situations.
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QUANTITATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Quantitative psychology- this field of scientific study brings statistical
analysis of human or animal psychological processes with a method of
mathematical modelling, and research design and methodology.
Psychologists working in this field develop and analyse a broad range
of research methods such as psychometrics, which is concerned with
the theory and technique behind psychological measurement.
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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology -this is the scientific study of the way thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours are affected by the actual or implied
presence of another people. In this way human behaviour is
explained as the result of interaction between mental states and
social situations. Social psychologists focus on topics such as group
behaviour, social interaction, nonverbal behaviour and
communication, and social influences on behaviour.
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CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Clinical psychology- this element within the field of psychology
blends science, theory, and clinical expertise to better understand,
prevent, and relieve psychological issues that cause distress or
dysfunction. From this, it means to improve mental wellbeing and
promote personal development. Clinical psychology includes
psychological assessment and psychotherapy, and is a regulated mental
health profession in some countries.
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EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Educational psychology- sharing some ground with cognitive and
behavioural psychology, this is the scientific study of human learning.
Researchers review learning processes to understand individual differences
in intelligence, motivation, cognitive development, and self-concept.
Educational psychology depends on quantitative methods such as testing
and measurement, toward the refinement of educational activities related to
instructional design, classroom management, and assessment.
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FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
Forensic psychology- at the point where the justice system and
psychology converge is forensic psychology. It encompasses
jurisdictional considerations – as law varies from place to place –
whilst properly cooperating with relevant parties such as judges and
lawyers. Forensic psychology also addresses elemental legal principles
in relation to expert witness testimonies and other specific areas like
workplace discrimination and child custody.
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INDUSTRIALAND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Industrial and organizational psychology- also known as occupational
psychology, work and organizational psychology, and I-O psychology, this
increasingly prevalent discipline within psychology studies the science of human
behaviour in relation to the workplace. Work in this area involves applying research
on employee behaviours and attitudes to refine training practices and management
systems in order to improve performance, motivation, job satisfaction, and
occupational health and safety.
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POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY
Political psychology- this interdisciplinary academic field within
psychology aims to interpret politics, politicians, and political behaviour
from a psychological perspective. The connection between politics and
psychology is mutual, with psychology being used as a means to explain
politics and politics being used to conversely explain psychology.
Political psychology draws on many other subjects such as anthropology,
sociology, economics, philosophy, journalism, and history.
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SPORT PSYCHOLOGY
Sport psychology- another interdisciplinary field within psychology is
sport psychology, which brings input from other related fields including
physiology, biomechanics, and kinesiology. It looks at how psychological
factors impact upon performance and the ways in which sport and
exercise affect psychological and physical concerns of a participant.
Whilst performance improvement is central to the subject, it has further
relevance to communication, team building, and career transitions.
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SEXOLOGY
•Sexology- is the scientific study of human sexuality,
including human sexual interests, behaviors, and
functions. The term sexology does not generally refer to
the non-scientific study of sexuality, such as social
criticism.
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COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY
Counseling psychology is one of the largest individual subfields in
psychology. It is centered on treating clients experiencing mental distress
and a wide variety of psychological symptoms.
The Society of Counseling Psychology describes the field as an area that
can improve interpersonal functioning throughout life by improving social
and emotional health as well as addressing concerns about health, work,
family, marriage, and more.
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RELEVANCE OF EDCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
Educational psychology is relevant to the classroom teacher in the following
ways:
• It will help the classroom teacher to understand the characteristics of early
childhood learners and then develop and apply theories of human growth,
development, maturation and learning in the classroom situation.
• psychology emphasizes on systematic approach to research, as such in
designing instructional materials, activities for learning in the classroom it must
be done systematically.
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RELEVANCE OF EDCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY CONT…
• Knowledge in educational psychology results in effective classroom
management and pedagogy tend to inform teachers on how to organize the
classroom for effective teaching and learning to take place.
• Educational psychology promotes effective communication skills in the
entire school set-up by creating an enabling environment
• Education equips teachers with effective repetiteur of instructional skills
in the teachers
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RELEVANCE OF EDCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY CONT…
• Educational psychology equips teachers with effective use of
instructional materials to facilitate learning in schools
• It helps teachers with the skills of identifying children with
exceptionality whilst attending to their needs developmentally
• It equips teachers to plan, implement and evaluate curriculum
developmentally
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LESSON TWO (2)
HUMAN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• explain concepts such as growth, development and maturation and differentiate
among them
• discuss stages of development with examples
• list and discuss at least ten (10) principles underpinning human growth and
development with their educational implications for the classroom teacher
• discuss some controversies in human growth and development
• discuss the process of human development
• outline both environmental and biological hazards affecting human development
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•In child and developmental psychology, it is
often said that human being grows,
develops and matures.
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DEFINITION OF GROWTH
• Growth could be seen as an irreversible increase in size, mass, weight,
volume as a result of cell division in an organism.
• Growth often refers to measurable physical changes that occur
throughout a person’s life, eg, increase in height, weight, mass, volume,
physical characteristics.
• Growth is also often described as increase in size and overall physical
structure of many parts of the body simultaneously, which usually
accompany age increase.
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IMPLICATION OF GROWTH
•Growth implies increase in size, such as height and
weight. Such changes can be measured or
quantified and as such a result they are biological
and physiological in nature.
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DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT
• Development is the pattern of progressive, orderly, coherent
and predictable changes that begin at conception and
continue throughout life. It involves both growth and decline
in physical, psychological and social domains of human being.
• Development also refers to a progressive series of changes that
occur in an orderly, predictable sequence or pattern as a result
of maturation and learning experience.
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DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT CONT…..
•Development refers to the qualitative changes that an
organism or individual undergoes in the course of his or
her life span. This changes could be physical, mental,
cultural, linguistic, creative, and psychosocial in nature.
•Development also refers to the acquisition of skills and
abilities that take place throughout life.
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IMPLICATION OF DEVELOPMENT
• By progressive, it signifies that the changes are directional, which
can move forward and backwards. Orderly and coherent suggest
that there is a definite relationship between ongoing changes and
those that precede as well as those that follow. Development
implies an increase in our ability to function in more complex
ways. Development includes such features as differentiation,
integration and unfolding of structures, resulting from growth.
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IMPLICATION OF DEVELOPMENT CONT…..
• Development therefore includes traits characteristics which we
can observe and evaluate, but cannot measure in absolute
standards, hence qualitative in nature. The ultimate goal of
developmental changes in human is self-realization (an individual
striving to become the best person possible, physically, mentally,
socio-emotionally, creatively, culturally, and linguistically).
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DIFFERENCES
Growth
DIFFERENCES
Development
1. Growth results in physical changes in
organism.
1. Development results in over all and progressive
changes in the organism.
2. Growth is cellular (multiplication of
cells)
2. Development is organizational ( both maturation
and interaction environment)
3. Growth is change in shape, form,
structure and size of the body (physical)
3. Development is structural and functional
changes in body (acquisition of certain skills).
4.Growth stops at maturation 4. Development continues till death

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROWTH AND DEV CONT…..
GROWTH
• Physiological changes
• Quantifiable
• Growth may or may not bring development
(Growth is part of development)
DEVELOPMENT
• Overall changes in the individual
• Qualitative and difficult to measure
• Development is possible without growth
(development therefore includes growth)
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
•One major differences between growth and development
therefore is that , whilst growth is observable and
measurable, development, although observable, is not
measurable.
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MATURATION
• Maturation is explained in a variety of ways. It is sometimes seen as
the process of becoming, which implies a gradual emergence of a skill.
It is also defined as “unfolding potential” depicting the notion of
systematic and sequential ripening of a function or organ. Maturation is
the organism’s ability at a specific point in its development to perform a
task.
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DEFINITION OF MATURATION
• Maturation can also be seen unfolding aspects of the natural
potentialities of an organism which is not as a result of learning or
experiences per se!
• Maturation is also seen as the organism’s readiness to be able to
perform any given task at any point in time, which is not as a result of
learning or any other experience.
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IMPLICATION OF MATURATION WITH EXAMPLES
• We may also look at maturation as the culmination of the physiological and
psychological changes in relevant organs that make the organism able to achieve
readiness or the ability to accomplish a developmental task; for example, a child’s
ability to take the first walking step, as a result of the maturing of appropriate
nerves, bones and muscles. Maturation also manifests in a child’s ability to speak,
his first meaningful word, resulting from the maturing of relevant speech organs;
teeth, tongue, larynx and palate
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THE PROCESS OF MATURATION
• At this point, we want to discuss how maturation takes place. Maturation is said
to be a covert process of preparing an organism’s potential abilities to function
overtly. It a process of automatic unfolding of biological potential of a set, in an
irreversible sequences. It is clear that both growth and maturation entail
biological changes; however, it must be emphasized that, whereas growth refers to
an increase in an individual’s cells and tissues, maturation concerns the
development in a gradual process, of organs and links to the point where they
become functional. It is a gradual improvement in the quality of the functioning
of the organism
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ILLUSTRATING THE PROCESS
• Maturation as you may have understood by now reflects the unfolding of
genetically prescribed or “preprogrammed” patterns of behavior. For example,
human activities like crawling, walking and running are preprogrammed and cannot
happen, until all relevant organs and muscles are “ready”. To illustrate this, we can
say that a five month old baby cannot walk, because the maturation of the necessary
muscles and nerves has not yet taken place, even though, the organs have been
growing. The point at which an organism becomes matured enough to start tackling
new development tasks is referred to as the state of readiness.
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MATURATION
In sum, maturation means simply the changes, which take place as a result of
physical growth of biological change, rather than those, which take place, through
experience. Major development in early childhood is the result of maturation
learning such as walking, talking etc are the example of maturation. It provides the
baseline for the future development.
• It is to be noted that maturational changes are relatively independent of environmental
events, as long as environmental conditions remain normal or constant.
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MATURATION, DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING
• Acquisition of new skills, knowledge, attitudes or values due to the
environmental stimulation and training is often known as learning.
Therefore, development comes from effort, practice and training.
Maturation together with learning will promote and facilitate the
development of an individual.
• Maturation influences the process of learning. If an individual has not
achieved the necessary level of maturity, a particular learning behavior cannot
be expected.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MATURATION AND LEARNING
• Definitions of Maturation and Learning:
• • Learning is the process that results in a behavioral change in the individual.
• • Maturation is a process where the individual learns to react to situations in an
appropriate manner.
• Processes:
• • Learning is through practice and experience.
• • Maturation is through individual growth and development.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MATURATION AND LEARNING
• External Stimuli:
• Learning is a response to external stimuli that result in individual change.
• Maturation does not need external stimuli.
• Maturation and Learning:
• Maturation influences the process of learning. If an individual has not achieved
the necessary level of maturity, a particular learning behavior cannot be expected.
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DOMAINS/AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT
• Physical Development or psychomotor skills --This includes changes in the body (in the
brain, sense organs, muscles, bones etc) motor skills or sexual skills. However, any physical
change which results from accident, illness or other special events cant be seen as a true
physical development.
• NOTE: motor means muscular movement in humans.
• Cognitive development/mental/intellectual -- changes in reasoning, thinking, language
acquisition, learning, memorizing, adapting and adjusting to new situations.
• Psychosocial development/affective/socio-emotional- changes in feelings, emotions,
values, attitudes, dispositions, orientations, relationship. Physical appearance and intellectual
abilities also affect one’s relationship.
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CONTROVERSIES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• The Nature/ Nurture Controversy
Now, I want us to learn about a very interesting and important issue concerning
psychology. It is a debate regarding which of these two factors, being heredity (the
physical characteristics like height, weight, eye color etc. and psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, personality, creativity and so on are innately
determined and hereditary or environment is the more important in determining
human behavior. This is the nature (heredity)–nurture (environment) controversy
which has raged for years between two schools of thought, the hereditarians and the
environmentalist.
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HEREDITARIANS
• This school of thought can also be referred to as the nativists. Psychologists of the
hereditary faction believe that, it is nature that endows an individual with all
characteristics, potentialities and behavior. They believe that it is heredity or
nature that sets the limits to what the individual will become or be able to achieve.
The view implies that the environment contributes very little, and or in-fact
nothing, to the growth and development as well as all the characteristics of an
individual. To them, therefore, heredity is more important than the environment.
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ENVIRONMENTALISTS
• On the other hand, there are the environmentalists who believe that the
environment is more important than nature or heredity. They hold this position
because the nourishment, protection and development of the zygote, embryo and
foetus, all have effect on the individual. The environmentalists suggest that majority
of the differences in intelligence and personality are all environmentally
determined. They believe that environmental differences in the upbringing of
individuals produce different rates of intellectual growth of children of equal
hereditary endowment. They conclude, therefore, that environmental factors are
more important than heredity.
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SOLUTION TO THE CONTROVERSY
• The debate is interesting, isn’t it? It seems difficulty to acclaim one
group as winners; there must therefore be a compromise. This is
attempted by Sprinthall and Sprinthall (1990) who offer a modern
solution. To them neither heredity nor environment is the sole cause of
behavior. Rather behavior results from the interaction overtime
between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
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PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
• The principles of growth and development are statement about the
course of life of human organisms that have been observed by
psychologist as common characteristics of human growth and
development. Even though, theories of human growth and development
perceive the development of human species differently, they all agree
on certain principles underlying, human growth and development.
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GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT FOLLOW DIRECTIONAL
PATTERN
•Development starts from a point, whilst following a sequential order; it is a
step-by-step process. The physical development follows two sequences or
projections:
(i) Cephalo-caudal Sequence- The body grows from head region downwards
(head-toe or tail or heel).
•(ii). Proximo-distal sequence- the growth process from the central part to
the peripheral parts of the body, i.e. the spinal cord develops first and then the
outward development takes place, eg arms before the hands and fingers in
that order.
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GROWTH IS A CONTINUOUS PROCESS
• Development is said to be continuous because it begins at the time of
conception and continues till death. However, it is not always smooth
and gradual throughout. This means that human being grow, all the time
,in spite, of the varying peak levels that they attain in height and weight.
There are no clear out breaks in developmental meaning, developmental
stages are not separate but follow one from the other.
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DEVELOPMENT IS INFLUENCED BY BOTH HEREDITY AND
ENVIRONMENT
• The individual in a product of both hereditary and environmental
factors.
• Development therefore becomes a function of heredity and environment
that is D=(HE) where D is development ‘H’ is heredity and E is
environment.
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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ARE INDIVIDUAL
PROCESSES
• This implies that there are varying rates in developmental process. There are inter and intra variations. Intra means
the different rate of development of certain aspects within a particular individual, e.g. a girl may develop language
or acquire it faster than the development of mathematical concepts. Inter variation means the difference rate of
development between the individual and other people. e.g. girl ‘A’ may attain puberty at the age of ten, whereas girl
“B” may attain puberty at the age of thirteen. Organ systems and function do not proceed at the same rate,
throughout development. Although, growth is orderly and continuous in its sequence, the rate of growth differs
from one period to another, and from one organ and system to the other; e.g. there is very rapid physical growth in
first three years of life, development of genital organs slows in childhood but very rapid during adolescence. The
brain grows (increase in size) very rapidly during prenatal and early post natal stages. There is sharp increase in
acquisition of vocabulary and motor skills during the preschool years.
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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ARE EPIGENETIC
• This principle explains that although certain changes in the
human body might be seen to appear suddenly, but in reality,
these changes do not emerge all of sudden. The child’s first word
and first step are the result of a cumulative experience. For
example, the child’s word first word is preceded by cooing,
babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic and rule acquisition. Running
in children follows the same logical sequential pattern.
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DEVELOPMENT IS THE PRODUCT OF MATURATION AND LEARNING
• This principle refers to the fact that because we as individuals can perform any developmental task, our
physiological organs necessary for the performance of that task must have been ready or have reached a stage where
they are capable of performing a task. For instance, before a child is able to utter his first word of meaningful speech,
the tongue, palate, teeth, the larynx and all other related organs must have matured. In addition, the child must have
been in a situation, where it has been possible for him to hear constantly and attempt to practice the word or words
that he or she is uttering. This means that both maturation and learning need to interact for development to take place.
In this particular case, the readiness of the speech organs can be equated to infatuation.
• While the child’s constant interaction with the words through hearing can be called learning.
•The ability to utter the words by itself is development. What this tells us is that maturation dictates the time when we
are ready for a particular developmental task, such as reading, writing, social and mental readiness.
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GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT PROCEED FROM GENERAL TO
SPECIFIC
• The first cells of human organism immediately after conception
are undefferenciated; meaning we cannot see all parts of the
human body like the hands and legs. However, with time specific
parts emerge owing to cephalo-caudal and proxi-mosdital
progressions. Even in language acquisition, children call all men
daddy, but later get to know that among all such daddies,
specifically this is theirs.
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DEVELOPMENT FOLLOWS AN ORDERLY SEQUENCE
(NORMATIVE SEQUENCE)
• This means growth is orderly, though there are exceptions, development
normally follows a sequence which is predetermined; for example, a
child sits, before he crawls, and crawls before, he walks. There is no clear
cut demarcation between one stage of development and the other. What
happens at one stage is carried over and influence the next stage. The
child sits, before he stands, he babbles, before he talks; he draws a circle
before, he draws a square (Gessel, 2010).
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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ARE CHARACTERISED BY
CRITICAL PERIODS
• There are certain time periods in human development that certain influences
become very critical or necessary. For example, the first trimester in human
development ought to be recognized as very critical stage, which ought to be
recognized as such.
• This principle implies that what happens to a child, early in life, especially in the
first five years of life, has a profound influence on what he/she will be as an adult.
This is in accord with the biblical injunction “train a child the way, he should go
and, when he grows up, he will not depart from it” (proverb 22:1).
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DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS IN STAGES
•Human growth starts on the very day, the ovum of a
woman is fertilized by the sperm of a man. During
pregnancy, the foetus develop through three stages,
namely, germinal stage, embryo stage and foetal stage.
After birth, individual develop through infancy, childhood,
adolescence, and adulthood. Each is a bit different, which
builds on each other.
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EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF
1. Development and learning are closely related:
•Development determines how learning should proceed. If the child is forced to
learn a material, when he has not developed up to that stage to learn a particular
material, the learning becomes superficial.
2. Physical growth and maturation prepares the stage on which learning occurs:
The materials, an individual’s learns, the speed with which he learns it; and the ability
to retain it, all depend on physical growth and maturation.
3. The teacher, with a knowledge of child development becomes more practical and
understanding, when teaching. He knows what to expect from a child at a particular
stage.
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4. Knowledge of growth and development helps teachers and
administrators to plan the curriculum and select the effective methods of
teaching for children.
5. Knowledge of development aids the teachers to access learning
readiness, because readiness is a product of both training and
maturation.
6. As development is a product of heredity and environment, both the
factors should be taken into consideration for taking any decision about
the child.
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7. Emphasis should be on doing: ‘Doing’ helps in the
development of mental, physical and social skills.
8. Different modes of teaching learning: Singing songs and
learning rhymes, drawing pictures and reading stories help the
child’s mind to grow at the pre primary, primary and middle stages.
9. Due recognition: For proper development, all children need
adequate praise and recognition for their work.
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EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN
GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
10. Aspects of satisfaction of curiosity: Children are curious to
learn and respond with interest to new things.
11. Need for a pragmatic outlook- Every stage of growth has its
possibilities and limitations. Teachers and parents should not place
too much demands on the child. Such demands lead to mental
tension for the child.
12. Observation: Observation of children leads to better understanding on
the part of parents and teachers.
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STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Stage Period & Age
1.Prenatal Period (Germinal,
embryonic and foetal stages)
2.Perinatal
3. Postnatal
Conception to birth
7months – 28th day after birth
Birth -till death
4. Infancy From ninth week to approximately 2 years
5. Adolescence From 12 years to approximately 18years
a. Early Adulthood
b. Middle childhood
c. Late Childhood
From 19years to 34 years
From 35 years to 64years
Late adulthood (65+)
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ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL
• Maternal Nutrition
• Maternal Stress
• Maternal Disease
• Maternal intake of alcohol/drug/cigarette
• Maternal accidents
• Maternal age
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CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON
HUMAN GROWTH AND BEHAVIORS…………………….
The human growth and behaviors can be understood from the characteristics mentioned below:
1) Behaviors are reproduced in successive generations: Behaviors in species are handed over from
generation to generation. In other words, the particular behavior continues over several generations. For
example, goats live to move in flock.
2) Change in biological process determines change in behaviors: The changes in human growth and
behaviors are determined by changes in biological processes. If there is a change in biological structure or
process that leads to changes in human growth and behaviors also. For example, if there is damage in a
particular area of the brain of a person, the behaviors of that person may change as he may express more
aggressiveness or emotionality. Similarly, the intake of certain drugs may change the brain chemistry which
have produced behavioral changes of human beings.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES ON
HUMAN GROWTH AND BEHAVIORS……………………
• Behaviors run in families/ behaviors are transmitted in families: It has been observed in
families that if a person in the family has mental disorder, other members of the same family
may have same problem to some extent because they carry some similar genes which are
transmitted over generations.
• Genes are evolutionary: Behavioral changes occur through evolutions of genes. The genes of
chimpanzees and human beings are almost similar. So, chimpanzees are closest to human beings
and their characteristics and behaviors are more or less similar to humans which can be traced
on the basis of history of evolution of genes.
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BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS INFLUENCING PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
• Chromosomal abnormalities eg, Down syndrome,
• Turner syndrome and
• Klinefelter syndromes
• Hereditary diseases,
• Rhesus Factor, Rh- and Rh+
• Inheritance of mental retardation, and intelligence,
• Sex influence characteristics eg colour blidness
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