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A second type of cell division called meiosis takes place in multicellular eukaryotes. This is a reduction division in which the daughter cells receive exactly half the number of chromosomes of the mother cells. Meiosis occurs in the production of gametes—the sperm of the males and the eggs of the females. When a sperm fertilizes an egg, a zygote is produced with the appropriate number of chromosomes for the species—in humans (and potatoes) the zygote and the somatic (body) cells produced from it have 46 chromosomes. This is the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes, half of which have come from the sperm nucleus, half from the egg. The sperm and egg are haploid ( n); they carry half the number of chromosomes of the body cells (in humans, 23 in each sperm and egg). Meiosis thus makes it possible to maintain a constant number of chromosomes in a species that reproduces sexually by halving the number of chromosomes in the reproductive cells. Meiosis uses many of the same mechanisms as mitosis and is assumed to have been derived from mitosis after the latter procedures were in place in some early organisms millenia ago. Figure 1 shows the stages of mitosis, and Figure 2 shows the stages of meiosis. Note that the names for the stages are the same as those of mitosis, with the addition of a numeral to designate either the first or the second divisional stage. Both divisions are part of meiosis; not until the final four daughter cells are produced is the process complete. Synapsis in Prophase I is a decisive interval in determining the inheritance of the daughter cells. At this time, genetic recombination can occur; that is, daughter cells may receive combined traits of their two parents rather than simply the trait from one or the other. This is possible because the phenomenon called crossing over often occurs when the chromatids lie together—segments containing similar alleles break apart and rejoin to the corresponding segment of the opposite chromatid, thus mixing the traits from individual parents.

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Reference Moeller, Karla T., "Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination in Reptiles". Embryo Project Encyclopedia (2013-02-01). ISSN: 1940-5030 Morjan, Carrie L. 2003. “How Rapidly Can Maternal Behavior Affecting Primary Sex Ratio Evolve in a Reptile with Environmental Sex Determination ?” Shine, Richard. 1999. “Why Is Sex Determined by Nest Temperature in Many Reptiles?” 14(5): 186–89. Wapstra, Erik et al. 2006. “Maternal Basking Behavior Determines Offspring Sex in a Viviparous Reptile.” : 230–32.

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7 | THE CELLULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE Figure 7.1 Each of us, like these other large multicellular organisms, begins life as a fertilized egg. After trillions of cell divisions, each of us develops into a complex, multicellular organism. (credit a: modification of work by Frank Wouters; credit b: modification of work by Ken Cole, USGS; credit c: modification of work by Martin Pettitt) Chapter Outline 7.1: Sexual Reproduction 7.2: Meiosis 7.3: Errors in Meiosis Introduction The ability to reproduce in kind is a basic characteristic of all living things. In kind means that the offspring of any organism closely resembles its parent or parents. Hippopotamuses give birth to hippopotamus calves; Monterey pine trees produce seeds from which Monterey pine seedlings emerge; and adult flamingos lay eggs that hatch into flamingo chicks. In kind does not generally mean exactly the same. While many single-celled organisms and a few multicellular organisms can produce genetically identical clones of themselves through mitotic cell division, many single-celled organisms and most multicellular organisms reproduce regularly using another method. Sexual reproduction is the production by parents of haploid cells and the fusion of a haploid cell from each parent to form a single, unique diploid cell. In multicellular organisms, the new diploid cell will then undergo mitotic cell divisions to develop into an adult organism. A type of cell division called meiosis leads to the haploid cells that are part of the sexual reproductive cycle. Sexual reproduction, specifically meiosis and fertilization, introduces variation into offspring that may account for the evolutionary success of sexual reproduction. The vast majority of eukaryotic organisms can or must employ some form of meiosis and fertilization to reproduce. 7.1 | Sexual Reproduction By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain that variation among offspring is a potential evolutionary advantage resulting from sexual reproduction • Describe the three different life-cycle strategies among sexual multicellular organisms and their commonalities Sexual reproduction was an early evolutionary innovation after the appearance of eukaryotic cells. The fact that most eukaryotes reproduce sexually is evidence of its evolutionary success. In many animals, it is the only mode of reproduction. Chapter 7 | The Cellular Basis of Inheritance 153 And yet, scientists recognize some real disadvantages to sexual reproduction. On the surface, offspring that are genetically identical to the parent may appear to be more advantageous. If the parent organism is successfully occupying a habitat, offspring with the same traits would be similarly successful. There is also the obvious benefit to an organism that can produce offspring by asexual budding, fragmentation, or asexual eggs. These methods of reproduction do not require another organism of the opposite sex. There is no need to expend energy finding or a.

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Chapter 7 notes

1. “ Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction” Chapter 7 Notes

2. I. MEIOSIS

4. MEIOSIS

7. a. independent assortment

8. b. crossing-over

9. c. random fertilization

10. SEGREGATION & CROSSING OVER together make even more combinations See ananimation

11. http://www.tokyo-med.ac.jp/genet/anm/mimov.gi

12.

13.

14.

15. II. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

16.

17.

18.

19.

Chapter 7 notes

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