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Learning slides
- 1. Learning 1
- 2. Overview 2
- 3. How do we develop passions, aversions, and responses to so many objects and activities? 3
- 4. Some of these objects and activities evolved after our birth—like a passion or aversion to Facebook 4
- 5. Such passions, aversions, & responses cannot be innate 5
- 6. Classical conditioning explains many of these tendencies 6
- 7. Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov 7
- 8. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives Ivan Pavlov, a Russian researcher, was interested in the sources of salivation 8
- 9. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives He wanted to determine which foods and conditions promoted salivation in dogs 9
- 10. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives To examine this issue, he developed a means to measure salivation in dogs 10
- 11. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives In essence, the salivary gland, was connected to a clear tube that dripped into a beaker 11
- 12. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives Each food would evoke different levels of salivation 12
- 13. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives But gradually he noticed something unusual 13
- 14. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives When he or his assistant entered the room, the dog would salivate 14
- 15. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives Dogs could not have evolved to recognize Russian scientists 15
- 16. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives He decided to study this anticipation 16
- 17. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives A metronome was activated before food was presented 17
- 18. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives Later, a metronome without food evoked salivation 18
- 19. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives If a signal tends to precede an event that provokes a reflex… 19
- 20. Pavlov’s conclusion Pavlov’s discovery Pavlov’s objectives this signal alone will evoke the reflex… 20
- 21. Classical conditioning extends reflexes to new situations 21
- 22. What are reflexes? 22
- 23. Reflexes are unlearned, involuntary responses to stimuli 23
- 24. Stepping reflex Swimming reflex Grasping reflex When placed in water, hold breath; move arms & legs 24
- 25. Stepping reflex Swimming reflex Grasping reflex Disappears after 4-6 months 25
- 26. Stepping reflex Swimming reflex Grasping reflex When held upright, with their feet touching the ground 26
- 27. Stepping reflex Swimming reflex Grasping reflex They will step, as if walking 27
- 28. Stepping reflex Swimming reflex Grasping reflex Unless practiced often, disappears after 8 weeks 28
- 29. Stepping reflex Swimming reflex Grasping reflex If touch palm, babies curl their finger around your finger 29
- 30. Stepping reflex Swimming reflex Grasping reflex After 3 to 4 months, replaced by a voluntary grasp 30
- 31. Classical conditioning also extends to involuntary acts that are learned, called elicited behaviours 31
- 32. Classical conditioning can also explain fears 32
- 33. Conclusion from this finding Little Albert afterwards Little Albert initially Little Albert was a happy child, with no obvious problems 33
- 34. Conclusion from this finding Little Albert afterwards Little Albert initially But he was subjected to an experiment… 34
- 35. Conclusion from this finding Little Albert afterwards Little Albert initially He received electric shocks whenever a rat approached 35
- 36. Conclusion from this finding Little Albert afterwards Little Albert initially He became fearful and avoidant of rats as a consequence 36
- 37. Conclusion from this finding Little Albert afterwards Little Albert initially This fear even generalized to other animals such as rabbits 37
- 38. Conclusion from this finding Little Albert afterwards Little Albert initially Perhaps classical conditioning can explain phobias… 38
- 39. Suppose a sound always precedes an electric shock 39
- 40. Over time, people associate the sound with the shock 40
- 41. The sound itself is sufficient to evoke fear or phobias 41
- 42. Conclusion from this finding Little Albert afterwards Little Albert initially But his experience does not typify phobias in general 42
- 43. Conclusion from this finding Little Albert afterwards Little Albert initially Unlike Little Albert, one pairing is enough to generate phobias 43
- 44. The study was actually flawed & not only unethical 44
- 45. The results, for example, were quite mixed. 45
- 46. Nomenclature 46
- 47. The concept is simple… The nomenclature is confusing… 47
- 48. You need to learn five terms 48
- 49. • neutral stimulus • unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response • conditioned stimulus and conditioned response 49
- 50. The metronome is initially a neutral stimulus— not associated with a particular response Neutral stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response 50
- 51. The food and salivation are called unconditioned. They are innate rather than conditioned over time. Neutral stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response 51
- 52. Over time, the metronome is conditioned to evoke salivation—and is called the conditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response 52
- 53. Yet, the metronome produces less salivation than food Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response 53
- 54. We distinguish the conditioned & unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response 54
- 55. Abbreviations of these terms: NS, US, UR, CS, and CR 55
- 56. 56
- 57. Observations 57
- 58. FAQ: Will the metronome evoke salivation after preceding the food say 5 times? 58
- 59. That is, how many pairings are necessary 59
- 60. CRintensitylikesalivation Number of paired stimuli 60
- 61. CRintensitylikesalivation Number of paired stimuli No precise number 61
- 62. CRintensitylikesalivation Number of paired stimuli A few pairings might evoke a modest CR 62
- 63. Overview Nomenclature Observations Stimulus-response Substitution Preparation CRintensitylikesalivation Number of paired stimuli Many pairings evoke stronger CRs 63
- 64. CRintensitylikesalivation Number of paired stimuli …until a plateau is reached 64
- 65. FAQ: Can the metronome precede the food by 1 hour? 65
- 66. or appear at the same time or after the food? 66
- 67. What is the optimal timing of the NS and US? 67
- 68. To answer this question, consider four arrangements… 68
- 69. Delayed: The NS precedes but overlaps with the US Delay 69
- 70. This arrangement facilitates conditioning 70
- 71. After a few pairings, the metronome will evoke salivation 71
- 72. Trace: The NS precedes but does not overlap with the US Only a trace of the sound remains 72
- 73. Prevents conditioning unless organism is concentrating Only a trace of the sound remains 73
- 74. and the hippocampus, vital to memory, is intact 74
- 76. Backward--the NS follows the US--impedes conditioning 76
- 77. But simultaneous and backward can be effective if… 77
- 78. the neutral stimulus has been significant during evolution 78
- 80. Suppose the sound always followed the shock 80
- 81. This backward arrangement will not enable conditioning 81
- 82. But now suppose the NS is significant, like a snake 82
- 83. The snake does become conditioned to provoke fear 83
- 84. Why? 84
- 85. Perhaps we are more sensitive to objects that have been significant, or threatening, during evolution 85
- 86. Complications 86
- 87. Suppose you want to feel inspired by the textbook 87
- 88. Before each event that could be inspiring, like a movie 88
- 89. you should read the book. The book will become a CS CS US UR 89
- 90. That is, over time, the book will elicit inspiration CS CR 90
- 91. But actually many complications need to be addressed CS CR 91
- 92. One complication is called overshadowing 92
- 93. Example: If the book coincides with an intense stimulus CS URUS 93
- 94. such as listening to loud music CS URUS Introduction Formula Classical Over-expectation Contradictions Refinements94
- 95. the intense stimulus is conditioned CS CR Introduction Formula Classical Over-expectation Contradictions Refinements95
- 96. The loud music, even by itself, will evoke inspiration CS CR 96
- 97. But the other stimulus—the book—is not conditioned 97
- 98. The book will not elicit inspiration 98
- 99. The intense stimulus overshadowed the other stimulus Refinements99
- 100. A second complication is called blocking 100
- 101. If you wear the same clothes before each inspiring event 101
- 102. these clothes will become conditioned to the stimulus CS US UR 102
- 103. That is, the clothes even by itself will evoke inspiration CS CR 103
- 104. But if you now also read the text before inspiring events 104
- 105. the book will not be conditioned or evoke inspiration 105
- 106. Why not? 106
- 107. That is, how did the clothes block this conditioning? 107
- 108. Because the clothes already predict the US CS US 108
- 109. The book does not help us predict the US CS US 109
- 110. So the book in essence is disregarded CS US 110
- 111. A third complication is called latent inhibition Introduction Formula Classical Over-expectation Contradictions Refinements111
- 112. Example: If the book coincides with an unfamiliar object CS URUS 112
- 113. the unfamiliar stimulus is conditioned CS CR 113
- 114. That is, the unfamiliar sound by itself evokes inspiration CS CR 114
- 115. But the other stimulus—the book—is not conditioned 115
- 116. The book will not elicit inspiration 116
- 117. The unfamiliar stimulus inhibited the other stimulus 117
- 118. But how does the NS evolve into a CS? 118
- 119. What cognitive processes underlie this change? 119
- 120. Some researchers ascribed classical conditioning to a stimulus response model 120
- 121. That is, individuals learn to associate the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned response 121
- 122. The neutral stimulus will thus prime the unconditioned response 122
- 123. The sound is associated with salivation & other activities 123
- 124. So the sound alone primes salivation & other activities 124
- 125. But this model cannot explain some interesting findings 125
- 126. One example is sign tracking 126
- 127. Sign tracking is the tendency of organisms to approach a stimulus that tends to precede a pleasant event… 127
- 128. Suppose a light always precedes food and thus pecking Neutral stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response 128
- 129. Unsurprisingly the light will evoke pecking 129
- 130. But the pigeon also pecks at the light 130
- 131. Could not be ascribed to a stimulus-response model 131
- 132. The pigeon had never pecked at the light initially. So the light was never associated with this behaviour 132
- 133. Instead, the pigeon seemed to substitute the light & food 133
- 134. The pigeons regarded the light and food as equivalent, called a stimulus-stimulus model 134
- 135. But organisms do not always apply the same behaviour to the CS and US—contrary to the substitution model 135
- 136. Heroin tends to decrease blood pressure Decrease blood pressure 136
- 137. But cues that precede heroin increase blood pressure Increase blood pressure 137
- 138. So heroin and its precursors could not be substitutes— because they evoke different responses Increase blood pressure 138
- 139. Perhaps the precursors—and all CSs—evoke a tendency to prepare before the US is presented 139
- 140. That is, suppose these cues always precede heroin use— and this heroin use tends to decrease blood pressure Decrease blood pressure 140
- 141. The cue thus precedes a decrease in blood pressure Decrease blood pressure 141
- 142. Overview Nomenclature Observations Stimulus-response Substitution Preparation To compensate, the cue increases blood pressure Decrease blood pressure 142
- 143. The cue thus evokes a preparatory response Decrease blood pressure 143
- 144. Perhaps stimulus-response, stimulus substitution, and response preparation all apply in various settings 144
- 146. Nomenclature of operant conditioning 146
- 147. To describe this theory, specific labels are often used 147
- 148. Individuals are exposed to some setting or stimulus 148
- 149. called the antecedent or discriminating stimulus Antecedent 149
- 150. They choose some behaviour in response, like press a bar Antecedent Behaviour 150
- 151. and receive some outcome as a consequence, like milk Antecedent Behaviour Consequence 151
- 152. If the consequence is pleasant, they will repeat this act Antecedent Behaviour Consequence 152
- 153. Pleasant consequences are called reinforcers or rewards Antecedent Behaviour Consequence 153
- 154. If the consequence is unpleasant, they will inhibit this act Antecedent Behaviour Consequence 154
- 155. Unpleasant consequences are called punishers Antecedent Behaviour Consequence 155
- 156. Positive versus negative reinforcers and punishers156
- 157. Besides reinforcers and punishers… 157
- 158. consequences can be divided into positive or negative 158
- 159. Oddly, not the same as pleasant and unpleasant ! 159
- 160. Positive—added to. Negative—withdrawn from 160
- 162. Positive reinforcement: Adding pleasant thing 162
- 163. like receiving ice cream after studying 163
- 164. Negative reinforcement: withdrawing unpleasant thing 164
- 165. like removing handcuffs or some other restriction 165
- 166. Positive punishment: adding unpleasant thing 166
- 167. like receiving a smack 167
- 168. Negative punishment: removing pleasant thing 168
- 169. like removing the right to leave the house Introduction Nomenclature Delays Reinforce vs punish Predictions Positive vs negative169
- 170. Why do we distinguish positive & negative outcomes? 170
- 171. Because positive consequences affect some people, 171
- 172. and negative consequences affect other people more 172
- 173. How do you reinforce acts the are not initiated otherwise 173
- 174. Apply shaping 174
- 175. To illustrate, suppose you want a dog to shake hands 175
- 177. Then reinforce only acts that are closer to shaking 177
- 178. like sitting with one paw in the air 178
- 179. Then reinforce only acts that are even closer to shaking 179
- 180. like the paw touching a hand 180
- 181. Eventually reinforce only the desired act of shaking 181
- 182. Shaping can be used to develop social skills too 182
- 183. Example: Socially withdrawn girl who spoke too quietly 183
- 184. Initially, if she exceeded 20 dB, she was rewarded “Excellent”21 184
- 185. Then, if she exceeded 25 dB, she was rewarded “Excellent”21 “Excellent”28 185
- 186. Eventually, if she exceeded 50 dB, she was rewarded “Excellent”21 “Excellent”28 “Excellent” “Excellent”32 “Excellent”“Excellent” “Excellent”52 186
- 187. Did you know when people speak louder and act extraverted their mood, & thus social skills, improve 187
- 188. Shaping has also been shown to overcome stuttering Aim Prompting & fading New behaviours Habits Openness Transfer188
- 189. Person is reinforced for increasing rate of speech Aim Prompting & fading New behaviours Habits Openness Transfer189
- 190. Classical versus operant conditioning 190
- 191. Classical conditioning extends our innate tendencies to a broader range of settings 191
- 192. For example, we innately smile in response to warmth 192
- 193. If a parent always coincides with this warmth… 193
- 194. the parent alone will evoke a smile 194
- 195. The smile is elicited in a broader range of settings 195
- 196. But respondent conditioning does not extend our repertoire of behaviours 196
- 197. Operant conditioning does extend our repertoire of behaviours 197
- 198. That is, in response to various events, we attempt variations of existing behaviours 198
- 199. Behaviours that are rewarded, not punished, are repeated and, over time, modified 199
- 200. Without operant conditioning, we would still attempt a diversity of behaviours but… 200
- 201. these behaviours would not become increasingly useful 201
- 203. How can you inspire children to tell the truth? 203
- 204. Perhaps each time the child concedes or discloses a fault, I was rude today 204
- 205. you could offer reassurance—a positive reinforcement That’s OK; you’re usually very good I was rude today 205
- 206. But this approach generates two problems I was rude today 206
- 207. First, you might be unable to reinforce each disclosure 207
- 208. For example, you might be distracted or far away I was rude today 208
- 209. Second, if you fail to reinforce only a few times, I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 209
- 210. the behaviour will tend to vanish or extinguish quickly I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 210
- 211. So how can you prevent these problems? 211
- 212. Reinforce after only a portion of suitable behaviors 212
- 213. Example: You could reinforce after every third disclosure I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 213
- 214. or after a delay of at least 1 hour I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 2.00 pm 4.00 pm 6.00 pm I was rude… 214
- 215. • Continuous reinforcement: Reinforce after each time • Intermittent reinforcement: Do not reinforce each time 215
- 216. Types of intermittent schedules 216
- 217. Intermittent schedules are classified as rate or interval 217
- 218. If you reinforce after every x acts, like 3 disclosures I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 218
- 219. the arrangement is called a rate schedule I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 219
- 220. Why is this arrangement called a rate schedule 220
- 221. bc the child is reinforced at a rate of 1 per 3 disclosures 221
- 222. If you reinforce an act only after a delay, such as 1 hour I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 2.00 pm 4.00 pm 6.00 pm I was rude… 222
- 223. the arrangement is called an interval schedule I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 2.00 pm 4.00 pm 6.00 pm I was rude… 223
- 224. bc the child is reinforced only after an interval of 1 hour 224
- 225. Note the child is not always reinforced after an hour I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 2.00 pm 4.00 pm 6.00 pm I was rude… 225
- 226. Instead the first disclosure after this hour is reinforced I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 2.00 pm 4.00 pm 6.00 pm I was rude… 226
- 227. Rate and interval schedules can also be divided… 227
- 228. into fixed and variable 228
- 229. Fixed rate: Child is reinforced after exactly 3 disclosures I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 229
- 230. Variable: Child is reinforced after 3 disclosures on average I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… I was rude… 230
- 231. Why do we need to know about these schedules? 231
- 232. Each schedule is common in real life 232
- 233. and generates different effects 233
- 234. Examples of intermittent schedules 234
- 235. Here are some typical examples 235
- 236. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Each time salespeople sell 5 home loans, they receive a $100 bonus Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 236
- 237. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … So, the act is the sale, and the reinforcement is the bonus Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 237
- 238. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … called fixed rate 5 or FR 5 Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 238
- 239. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Slot machines pay a bonus after about 10 lever presses on average Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 239
- 240. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … The behaviour is pressing a lever; the reinforcement is the money Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 240
- 241. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … called variable rate 10 or VR10 Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 241
- 242. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … To teach children to be quiet, you serve food only when they are quiet Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 7.00 am 1.00 pm 6.00 pm 242
- 243. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … but only after an interval of at least 5 hours from their previous meal Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 7.00 am 1.00 pm 6.00 pm 243
- 244. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Called fixed interval 5 or FI5 Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 7.00 am 1.00 pm 6.00 pm 244
- 245. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Or, if the minimum delay varied but was 5 hours on average Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 7.00 am 1.00 pm 6.00 pm 245
- 246. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … the schedule is VI5 instead Fixed rate Fixed interval Variable rate Variable interval 7.00 am 1.00 pm 6.00 pm 246
- 247. Benefits of the various intermittent schedules 247
- 248. So which schedule is preferable? 248
- 249. And what is the effect or benefit of each schedule? 249
- 250. These effects vary on four attributes 250
- 251. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction Variable interval generates the most responses FR VR FI VI 251
- 252. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction Why? FR VR FI VI 252
- 253. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction If fixed interval, bc of the delay, frequent responses are not always reinforced FR VR FI VI 253
- 254. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction So rate of responses diminishes FR VR FI VI 254
- 255. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction If variable, reinforcement may be very soon—enhances energy FR VR FI VI 255
- 256. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction For fixed, we may know the reward will not arrive until 6 actions later256
- 257. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction For variable, the reward could be sooner, igniting anticipation257
- 258. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction Could explain why some people gamble so often FR VR FI VI 258
- 259. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction because any moment they could enjoy a reward FR VR FI VI 259
- 260. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction For rate schedules, the responses are evenly distributed over time Time 260
- 261. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction For interval schedules, the responses escalate just before the delay ends 7.00 am 1.00 pm 6.00 pm 261
- 262. Many states resemble death …. … … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction rather than earlier 7.00 am 1.00 pm 6.00 pm 262
- 263. Many states resemble death …. … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction FR VR FI VI If fixed, often refrain from response immediately after the reward263
- 264. Many states resemble death …. … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction FR VR FI VI If variable, still respond immediately after the reward264
- 265. Many states resemble death …. … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction FR VR FI VI because, in these settings, an immediate reward is still possible265
- 266. Many states resemble death …. … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction FR VR FI VI Finally, after you withdraw reinforcement altogether 266
- 267. Many states resemble death …. … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction FR VR FI VI responses will not vanish or extinguish as immediately if variable267
- 268. Many states resemble death …. … … … … Rate of response Pause after reinforcement Distribution of responses Extinction FR VR FI VI Because of the variability, not as sure the reinforcement has vanished268
- 270. At one time, researchers assumed that people will learn only from the experiences in which they participated 270
- 271. Classical conditioning: People learn only when they experience the unconditioned response, like salivating 271
- 272. Operant conditioning : People learn only if they receive a reward or punishment themselves 272
- 273. Overview Bobo 1961 study Bobo 1963 study Role of attention Ubiquity Albert Bandura challenged this assumption Role of motivation 273
- 274. Overview Bobo 1961 study Bobo 1963 study Role of attention Ubiquity He showed that people—and even many animals—can learn merely by watching other individuals Role of motivation 274
- 275. Overview Bobo 1961 study Bobo 1963 study Role of attention Ubiquity Observing and participating in some activity is more effective than either of these modes alone Role of motivation 275
- 276. 1961 Bobo study 276
- 277. A famous study with Bobo, a doll, illustrated his theory 277
- 278. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results During Phase 1, some children observed violence 278
- 279. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results That is, 3 to 6 year old children played in one corner of a room 279
- 280. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results while an adult played in another corner 280
- 281. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results The adult played with some toys including a mallet and a doll: Bobo 281
- 282. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results Half the children watched an aggressive adult—saying “Pow”, using a mallet… 282
- 283. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results The other children watched an adult who did not play with Bobo 283
- 284. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results Did observing aggression affect their behaviour? 284
- 285. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results Phase 2 was designed to answer this question 285
- 286. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results After playing with fun toys, the children were told to shift rooms—to evoke frustration 286
- 287. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results In the other room were some modest toys and Bobo 287
- 288. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results A variety of behaviours were coded to assess the hypotheses 288
- 289. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results • Physical aggression, like kicking • Verbal aggression, like yelling • Mirroring adults, using the mallet 289
- 290. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results If exposed to aggression, children were more likely to demonstrate aggression 290
- 291. Phase 1 Phase 2 Measures Results especially in boys, particularly when the adult was male 291
- 292. 1963 Bobo study 292
- 293. The 1963 study was similar except… 293
- 294. First, the children watched only a film of the adult 294
- 295. Second, the adult was either rewarded with food or punished with an angry warning or tirade 295
- 296. Third, both the memory of this film and behaviour of the children were assessed 296
- 297. Again, children mirrored the aggressive adult— but only if this adult was rewarded 297
- 298. Yet the reward did not improve memory of aggression 298
- 299. So, the rewards or punishment that other people receive affect behaviour but not memory 299
- 300. …the determinants of learning & performance differ 300
Notes de l'éditeur
- 1961 – construction of Berlin Wall