1. What is
What is
Representation?
Representation?

3. Which other Key ConceptsWhich other Key Concepts
do we need to consider?do we need to consider?
• Media Language (Media Language (howhow the representation is created/the representation is created/
mediated, denotation and connotation)mediated, denotation and connotation)
• Institution and audience (Institution and audience (whowho is doing theis doing the
representation andrepresentation and whowho is it aimed at?)is it aimed at?)
• Theories and ideology (Theories and ideology (howhow can we deconstruct thecan we deconstruct the
representation andrepresentation and howhow can we make sense of it?)can we make sense of it?)

4. What do we need to know?What do we need to know?
Who is being represented?Who is being represented?
•• In what way?In what way?
•• By whom?By whom?
Why is the subject being represented in this way?Why is the subject being represented in this way?
•• Is the representation fair and accurate?Is the representation fair and accurate?
•• What opportunities exist for self-representation by theWhat opportunities exist for self-representation by the
subject?subject?

6. Mediation
Mediation
Every time we encounter a media text, we are
Every time we encounter a media text, we are
not seeing reality, but someone's version of it.
not seeing reality, but someone's version of it.
This may seem like an obvious point, but it is
This may seem like an obvious point, but it is
something that is easily forgotten when we get
something that is easily forgotten when we get
caught up in enjoying a text.
caught up in enjoying a text.

7. Mediation
Mediation
The media place us at one remove from
The media place us at one remove from
reality: they take something that is real, a
reality: they take something that is real, a
person or an event and they change its
person or an event and they change its
form to produce whatever text we end up
form to produce whatever text we end up
with. This is called mediation.
with. This is called mediation.

8. Mediation – three things toMediation – three things to
look out forlook out for
1.1. SelectionSelection
• Whatever ends up on the screen or in the paper, much more will have been leftWhatever ends up on the screen or in the paper, much more will have been left
out- any news story has been selected from hundreds of others which theout- any news story has been selected from hundreds of others which the
producers decided for you were less interesting, any picture has been chosenproducers decided for you were less interesting, any picture has been chosen
from an enormous number of alternatives.from an enormous number of alternatives.
2. Organisation2. Organisation
• The various elements will be organised carefully in ways that real life is not- inThe various elements will be organised carefully in ways that real life is not- in
visual media this involves mise-en-scene and the organisation of narrative, invisual media this involves mise-en-scene and the organisation of narrative, in
the recording of an album the production might involve re-mixing a track. Anythe recording of an album the production might involve re-mixing a track. Any
medium you can think of will have an equivalent to these. This organisation ofmedium you can think of will have an equivalent to these. This organisation of
the material will result in…….the material will result in…….
3.3. FocusingFocusing
• Mediation always ends up with us, the audience being pushed towardsMediation always ends up with us, the audience being pushed towards
concentrating on one aspect of the text and ignoring others. If you are watchingconcentrating on one aspect of the text and ignoring others. If you are watching
a film the camera will pan towards an important character, in a tabloid thea film the camera will pan towards an important character, in a tabloid the
headlines will scream, for your attention. It can be easy to ignore how differentheadlines will scream, for your attention. It can be easy to ignore how different
from our everyday lives this is. If you are walking through a field, you arefrom our everyday lives this is. If you are walking through a field, you are
unlikely to see a sign saying "look at this amazing tree." You make your ownunlikely to see a sign saying "look at this amazing tree." You make your own
decisions about what is worth our attention. The media text, through mediation,decisions about what is worth our attention. The media text, through mediation,
tries to do this for us.tries to do this for us.

9. Society,theindividual
Society,theindividual
andrepresentation
andrepresentation
 It is too simple to talk just
It is too simple to talk just
about the media mediating
about the media mediating
reality and creating
reality and creating
representations- we need a
representations- we need a
more subtle understanding
more subtle understanding
of the process. To get this
of the process. To get this
we will look briefly at some
we will look briefly at some
different ideas people have
different ideas people have
had about how
had about howrepresentation works. You
representation works. You
could broadly separate
could broadly separate
these into three:
these into three:

10. Three views of representationThree views of representation
 ReflectiveReflective
 According to this view, when we represent something, we are taking its trueAccording to this view, when we represent something, we are taking its true
meaning and trying to create a replica of it in the mind of our audience- like ameaning and trying to create a replica of it in the mind of our audience- like a
reflection. This is the view that many people have of how news works- the newsreflection. This is the view that many people have of how news works- the news
producers take the truth of news events and simply present it to us as accuratelyproducers take the truth of news events and simply present it to us as accurately
as possible.as possible.
 IntentionalIntentional
 This is the opposite of the Reflective idea. This time the most important thing inThis is the opposite of the Reflective idea. This time the most important thing in
the process of representation is the person doing the representing- they arethe process of representation is the person doing the representing- they are
presenting their view of the thing they are representing and the words or imagespresenting their view of the thing they are representing and the words or images
that they use mean what they intend them to mean. According to this theory, ifthat they use mean what they intend them to mean. According to this theory, if
you see a picture of an attractive person drinking a can of Coke in an advert, ityou see a picture of an attractive person drinking a can of Coke in an advert, it
will have the same meaning to you as the advertiser intended- go away and buywill have the same meaning to you as the advertiser intended- go away and buy
 ConstructionistConstructionist
 This is really a response to what have been seen a weakness in the other twoThis is really a response to what have been seen a weakness in the other two
theories. Constructionists feel that a representation can never just be the truth ortheories. Constructionists feel that a representation can never just be the truth or
the version of the truth that someone wants you to hear since that is ignoringthe version of the truth that someone wants you to hear since that is ignoring
your ability as an individual to make up your own mind and the influences of theyour ability as an individual to make up your own mind and the influences of the
society that you live in on the way that you do so.society that you live in on the way that you do so.

11. Any representation is a mixture of:Any representation is a mixture of:
1 The1 The thingthing itselfitself
2 The2 The opinionsopinions of theof the peoplepeople doing thedoing the
representationrepresentation
3 The3 The reactionreaction of theof the individualindividual to theto the
representationrepresentation
4 The4 The contextcontext of theof the societysociety in which thein which the
representation is taking place.representation is taking place.

12. Dominant
DominantIdeologies
Ideologies
 The group of ideas that
The group of ideas that
make up the dominant
make up the dominant
ideology in Britain are not
ideology in Britain are not
something that remains
something that remains
static- they change as new
static- they change as new
ideas enter the are
ideas enter the are
encountered and people
encountered and people
discuss them. For example
discuss them. For example
the dominant ideology in
the dominant ideology in
Britain used to be
Britain used to be anti-black
anti-black
but this seems to be
but this seems to be
changing at the moment.
changing at the moment.

13.  Many constructionists believe that this itself has an effectMany constructionists believe that this itself has an effect
on what the dominant ideology actually is - after all theon what the dominant ideology actually is - after all the
dominant ideology is only the belief of the majority ofdominant ideology is only the belief of the majority of
people so if you and others like you end up even morepeople so if you and others like you end up even more
sure that men in responsible positions should controlsure that men in responsible positions should control
their behaviour as a result of seeing the article, then thetheir behaviour as a result of seeing the article, then the
dominant ideology has become a bit stronger.dominant ideology has become a bit stronger.
 You could see the whole process that theYou could see the whole process that the
constructionists describe as being a kind of negotiation.constructionists describe as being a kind of negotiation.
Over the years representations are accepted or rejectedOver the years representations are accepted or rejected
by the majority of people and the dominant ideology isby the majority of people and the dominant ideology is
gradually changed.gradually changed.
 Dominant ideology is a key aspect of MarxismDominant ideology is a key aspect of Marxism
Dominant IdeologiesDominant Ideologies

14. Stereotypes
Stereotypes
 It's worth now looking in
It's worth now looking in
more detail at what is going
more detail at what is going
on in the other parts of the
on in the other parts of the
process- the individuals and
process- the individuals and
the media and their
the media and their
relationship with what is
relationship with what is
being represented. This
being represented. This
brings us on to the question
brings us on to the question
of stereotypes- another
of stereotypes- another
word which is maybe worth
word which is maybe worth
a dictionary definition.
a dictionary definition.

15. StereotypesStereotypes
A standardised, usually oversimplified, mentalA standardised, usually oversimplified, mental
picture or attitude that is held in common bypicture or attitude that is held in common by
members of a groupmembers of a group..
 A stereotype is a simplification that we use toA stereotype is a simplification that we use to
make sense of a real person or group which ismake sense of a real person or group which is
much more complicated.much more complicated.

16. The four parts of a media stereotypeThe four parts of a media stereotype
How can the media build a stereotype?How can the media build a stereotype?
With any group of people, there will obviously be anWith any group of people, there will obviously be an
enormous number of things that can be used in aenormous number of things that can be used in a
stereotype, but because stereotyping is a form ofstereotype, but because stereotyping is a form of
simplification, normally the most obvious things aresimplification, normally the most obvious things are
used. These are:used. These are:
1.1. Appearance- this can include, physical appearanceAppearance- this can include, physical appearance
and clothing as well as the sound of the voice. e.g. "alland clothing as well as the sound of the voice. e.g. "all
teachers wear dreadful old clothesteachers wear dreadful old clothes““
2. Behaviour - typical things that people in this group2. Behaviour - typical things that people in this group
might do. "Grannies like to knit"might do. "Grannies like to knit"

17. The four parts of a media stereotypeThe four parts of a media stereotype
 These first two features of media stereotypes are the same when weThese first two features of media stereotypes are the same when we
make our own stereotypes. They simply involve us thinking ofmake our own stereotypes. They simply involve us thinking of
something that may be true of some of the group in question andsomething that may be true of some of the group in question and
applying it to all.applying it to all.
 The third feature of media stereotyping is peculiar to the media:The third feature of media stereotyping is peculiar to the media:
3.3. The stereotype is constructed in ways that fit the particular mediumThe stereotype is constructed in ways that fit the particular medium
 This is more difficult to understand but it is crucial for you to look forThis is more difficult to understand but it is crucial for you to look for
it. If you watch a film such as Silence of the Lambs and then look atit. If you watch a film such as Silence of the Lambs and then look at
the tabloid coverage of Fred West, you are seeing the samethe tabloid coverage of Fred West, you are seeing the same
stereotype ( the typical Serial Killer) being used, but there arestereotype ( the typical Serial Killer) being used, but there are
obviously big differences which will depend on the specifics of theobviously big differences which will depend on the specifics of the
media used.media used.
 The film will use close ups of the killer's leering face, soundtrackThe film will use close ups of the killer's leering face, soundtrack
music and reaction shots of terrified victims to create their version ofmusic and reaction shots of terrified victims to create their version of
the stereotype.the stereotype.

18. The four parts of a media stereotypeThe four parts of a media stereotype
4.4. There will always be a comparison whether real or imaginary with "normalThere will always be a comparison whether real or imaginary with "normal”” behaviour.behaviour.
 The features which make up a stereotype are always those which seemThe features which make up a stereotype are always those which seem
somehow different from every-day behaviour. In fact you could almost startsomehow different from every-day behaviour. In fact you could almost start
any stereotyped description by saying: "this group are different becauseany stereotyped description by saying: "this group are different because
they…….they…….““
 Of course the idea of what is normal in any society is an absurdity andOf course the idea of what is normal in any society is an absurdity and
therefore in order to make it clear to us that the stereotyped characters aretherefore in order to make it clear to us that the stereotyped characters are
not behaving "normally" there will frequently be "normal" people used to actnot behaving "normally" there will frequently be "normal" people used to act
as a contrast to them.as a contrast to them.
 So, to use the earlier example, Jodie Foster is used in Silence of the LambsSo, to use the earlier example, Jodie Foster is used in Silence of the Lambs
to give the audience someone to compare Lecter's behaviour with. On theto give the audience someone to compare Lecter's behaviour with. On the
news, tales of striking workers (another stereotype) are always contrastednews, tales of striking workers (another stereotype) are always contrasted
with interviews with "normal" people who are suffering as a result of theirwith interviews with "normal" people who are suffering as a result of their
actions.actions.
 The normal person will act as a representative of us in the text- at the sameThe normal person will act as a representative of us in the text- at the same
time reflecting what we might feel, or telling us what to feel depending on yourtime reflecting what we might feel, or telling us what to feel depending on your
point of view.point of view.

19. Changing
Changing
representations–
representations–Countertypes
Countertypes
 In the Sci-Fi blockbuster film
In the Sci-Fi blockbuster film
Independence Day there is a
Independence Day there is a
character played by Will Smith who
character played by Will Smith who
is clearly intended to be a positive
is clearly intended to be a positive
and strong hero. As such, he goes
and strong hero. As such, he goes
against many of the previous
against many of the previous
negative stereotypes of black
negative stereotypes of black
people in American films. In one
people in American films. In one
crucial scene from the film we see
crucial scene from the film we see
him responding to the danger of an
him responding to the danger of an
alien's attack by simply kicking it.
alien's attack by simply kicking it.
 In another blockbuster Sci-Fi film -
In another blockbuster Sci-Fi film -
Mars Attacks - there is also a black
Mars Attacks - there is also a black
hero who also responds to the
hero who also responds to the
attack of a bunch of aliens by
attack of a bunch of aliens by
punching one of them. Both of these
punching one of them. Both of these
films were made virtually
films were made virtually
simultaneously.
simultaneously.
 How can we explain the fact that
How can we explain the fact that
they end up containing what are
they end up containing what are
almost identical scenes?
almost identical scenes?

21. Changing
Changing
representations–
representations–Countertypes
Countertypes
 In both cases, the representation
In both cases, the representation
of black people in these films
of black people in these films
has probably resulted from the
has probably resulted from the
very best of intentions. The films'
very best of intentions. The films'
producers were probably tired of
producers were probably tired of
years of negative stereotyping of
years of negative stereotyping of
black people in the movies and
black people in the movies and
wanted to create a new
wanted to create a new
representation.
representation.
 So, instead of showing black
So, instead of showing black
people as criminals or as
people as criminals or as
animals they have represented
animals they have represented
them as noble heroes who get
them as noble heroes who get
straight to the point and take no
straight to the point and take no
nonsense. They have also
nonsense. They have also
emphasised the humour of these
emphasised the humour of these
characters and have made sure
characters and have made sure
that they are attractive enough to
that they are attractive enough to
act as macho role models.
act as macho role models.

22. Changing
Changing
representations–
representations–Countertypes
Countertypes
 One analysis of this would be to say
One analysis of this would be to say
that they have created a new kind of
that they have created a new kind of
stereotype – a positive stereotype
stereotype – a positive stereotype
which could be called a countertype.
which could be called a countertype.
In the same way as a traditional
In the same way as a traditional
stereotype was made by selecting
stereotype was made by selecting
the negative behaviour of some
the negative behaviour of some
members of the group, the
members of the group, the
countertype homes in on some
countertype homes in on some
features which are positive.
features which are positive.
 However the countertype is still very
However the countertype is still very
much a stereotype -- it is still a
much a stereotype -- it is still a
simplification of the enormous
simplification of the enormous
diversity that must exist in the
diversity that must exist in the
population of black Americans. As
population of black Americans. As
such, although it is an improvement
such, although it is an improvement
on a negative stereotype, it is still
on a negative stereotype, it is still
not the whole truth and many black
not the whole truth and many black
people would probably still find it
people would probably still find it
very annoying in the way that it
very annoying in the way that it
limits their behaviour.
limits their behaviour.

23. Canweever
Canweever
avoid
avoidstereotypes?
stereotypes?
 You will probably be able to find
You will probably be able to find
Countertypes whenever there is a
Countertypes whenever there is a
group being represented positively
group being represented positively
for the first time by the media. It
for the first time by the media. It
seems as if the media find it difficult
seems as if the media find it difficult
to adapt to change and will always
to adapt to change and will always
use the old techniques of
use the old techniques of
simplification even if they're trying to
simplification even if they're trying to
be nice about someone.
be nice about someone.
 This has led some people to
This has led some people to
question whether it is ever possible
question whether it is ever possible
to create a representation that is
to create a representation that is
free of stereotypes. If you think back
free of stereotypes. If you think back
to implicit personality theory, it
to implicit personality theory, it
should be clear how natural the
should be clear how natural the
process of stereotyping is to us and
process of stereotyping is to us and
how attractive we find this simplified
how attractive we find this simplified
view of the world. However, if we
view of the world. However, if we
are aware of this tendency in our
are aware of this tendency in our
own minds, we must be able to at
own minds, we must be able to at
least try to avoid it and to recognise
least try to avoid it and to recognise
it in the media texts that we are
it in the media texts that we are
presented with.
presented with.