Lesson-7-final-aquaculture.docx

Fish 303- AQUACULTURE
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
1
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN FISHERIES
1st
semester AY, 2020-2021
Course Code : Fish 303
Course Title : Aquaculture
Class Schedule: T (7:00-10:00AM), TH(7:00-10:00AM)-TH(4:30-5:30PM), F(4:30-5:30PM)
Instructor : JAYSON D. DELA PEÑA
Time Frame : 9hours
LESSON 7 - The Next 20 Years1
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS THIS LESSON ABOUT?
World per capita consumption of fish and fishery products has risen steadily over
recent decades from an average of 11.5 kg during the 1970s, 12.5 kg in the 1980s to 14.4 kg
in the 1990s. In 2007, capture fisheries and aquaculture supplied the world with over 113.7
million t of food fish2, providing an apparent per capita supply of 17.1 kg (live weight
equivalent), which is among the highest on record .Global production of fish3 from
aquaculture has grown rapidly during the past four decades, contributing significant
quantities to the world’s supply of fish for human consumption. Aquaculture currently
accounts for nearly half (44.3%) of the world’s food fish. With its continued growth, it is
expected that aquaculture will in the near future produce more fish for direct human
consumption than capture fisheries4.
In 2007, the world consumed 113.7 million t of fish, of which 50.3 million t originated
from aquaculture. The Earth’s population is forecast to reach 8.32 billion in 2030. If capture
fisheries production and the non-food uses of fish remain constant, aquaculture needs to
produce over 80 million t by 2030 to maintain the current per capita consumption. That is, 20
years from now, aquaculture will need to produce an additional 30 million t of fish per year
compared with current annual production.
WHAT WILL YOU LEARN?
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Discuss recent trends in aquaculture development and major challenges
2. Explain the aquaculture development slows down, but it continues to grow
3. State the Small-scale producers and market access
WHAT DO YOU ALREADY KNOW?
Before you go through this lesson, try to answer this pre-test. This will enable to find out
what you already know and what you still need know about “Marine Fish”. Answer this in
your test notebook.
Pre-Test: Write T on the blank if the statement is correct. If false, write F, then underline
the word/words that makes/make the statement wrong then change to make it correct.
____ 1. The growth of aquaculture (in volume) has already begun
to slow down
_____2. World aquaculture production is dominated by species at the lower end of the
food chain.
_____3. The demand for low-value species for national consumption is currently met
primarily through national production.
_____4. Globally, fish is an important export commodity
_____5. Aquaculture is an income generating activity, with significant potential for
creation of employment, poverty reduction, community development and food security

2
LET US STUDY
Assuming a sustained demand for fish (the world is prepared to pay for fish as a
desirable food product), the question remains whether the sector can grow fast enough, and
sustain the projected demand for food fish, while ensuring consumer protection, maintaining
environmental integrity and achieving social responsibility.
RECENT TRENDS IN AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT AND MAJOR CHALLENGES
A recent study conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) shows six major development trends in aquaculture, which include the
following:
1. a continuing intensification of aquaculture production resulting mainly from the increasing
unavailability of aquaculture sites and the growing restrictions on using non-agricultural land
for aquaculture;
2. a continuing diversification of species use, particularly high-value marine species in
regions and countries where aquaculture is well established;
3. a continuing diversification of production systems and practices, including integration of
aquaculture into existing farming systems;
4. an increasing influence of markets, trade and consumers in prompting producers and
processors to pay more attention to environmental concerns, food quality and safety, and
moving towards greater value adding and development of processed products for exports
5. an enhanced regulation and improved governance of the sector, with strong emphasis on
self-regulation, especially through farmer associations;
6. increasing attention on better management of the aquaculture sector through production
efficiency, economic sustainability and overall competitiveness
Figure 1.Per capita supply of food fish (kg) from capture fisheries and aquaculture for human
consumption, 1950–2007.

3
Fig. 2 Contribution of aquaculture to the global food fish supply as quantity (million t) and
percentage.
The main challenges for the future will be for policy makers and development agents to
create an enabling environment for aquaculture to develop substantially enough to meet the
demand for fish. The major enabling factors that were identified include the following:
national and international market developments and access to markets;
• changing population and demography, seafood consumption habits and patterns;
• consumer preference, and increasing consumers’ purchasing power;
• technology development and improvement in management systems; access to sufficient
services and quality inputs;
• adoption of environmental management practices for protection and sustainable use of
aquatic resources;
• access to land and water resources and adequate physical infrastructure;
• ensuring food safety;
• skills development and capacity enhancement;
• efficient communication and knowledge transfer
AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT SLOWS DOWN, BUT IT CONTINUES TO GROW
The growth of aquaculture (in volume) has already begun to slow down. From a
yearly average of 11.8% in 1985– 1995 it has decreased to 7.1% during the following
decade, and the average rate of growth during 2004–2006 was 6.1% in volume and 11% in
value. Will the current growth rate maintain its course to produce the additional 30 million t of
food fish a year needed to maintain the current per capita consumption of fish by the year
2030? The 2004–2006 growth rate of around 6.1% a year could very well falter; the sector
may encounter numerous constraints in the coming decades.
Trends in species, consumption and trade
World aquaculture production is dominated by species at the lower end of the food
chain. Carp and shellfish account for a significant share (>70%) of species cultivated in
developing countries for human consumption. However, in response to a ready market for
species at the higher end of the food chain in both developed and developing countries, their
production in recent years has been growing rapidly compared with that of species at the
lower end of the food chain. The demand for fish as a healthy and nutritious food commodity
is increasing, even in the developing world. Personal disposable income of the three main

4
populations in the developing world, China, India and Indonesia, is steadily growing even as
their populations increase. The demand for low-value species for national consumption is
currently met primarily through national production. This, however, may not be the case in
the coming decades. Low-value fish may continue to be farmed and supplied for local
consumption in regions and countries where the cost of production is low and production
conditions are better; while nationally produced high-value fish may enter the global market.
Globally, fish is an important export commodity. Thevalue of world exports of fish
and fishery products grew by 9.5% in 2006 to equal US$86 billion and by nearly 7% in 2007
to equal US$92 billion. The proportion of world fish production (144 million t) that was traded
internationally in 2006 represents 37% of the total, or 54 million t. Developing countries
account for approximately 50% of all fish exports with a record net export revenue of US$25
billion (exports minus imports). World imports reached US$96 billion in 2007, but were
mostly by developed countries, responsible for 80% of all imports by value. This share,
however, is falling over time as developing countries are importing more and more, both as
raw material for their processing industry and for domestic consumption.
Through trade, globalisation is increasingly playing an important role in aquaculture
development. Its requirements are two-fold:
1. Strengthening of national, inter-provincial or inter-state, as well as regional and
international biosecurity, andfood safety measures;
2. Enhancing the ability, through training, legislation, codes of practice, certification, and
traceability schemes of governments and producers, to comply with trade and market access
requirements for safe and quality products.
These requirements are creating a considerable drive for importing and exporting
countries to harmonise standards collectively as well as address issues such as the
certification of products and processes. Further global cooperation and harmonisation of
standards for aquaculture production and trade will be important to support the increasingly
globalised aquaculture sector. As a consequence, policymakers emphasise the need for
better governance of the sector. They are aware that policies can be much more effective if
producers participate in planning, decision making, management and regulation processes.
Such recognition has led some governments to build upon existing national capacities to
assist producers and processors to comply with mandatory food safety regulations, while
empowering farmers and their associations for greater self-regulation. However, this is not
always the case.
Small-scale producers and market access
Aquaculture is an income generating activity, with significant potential for creation
of employment, poverty reduction, community development and food security. It has two
distinct facets in terms of production: producing fish for domestic markets. Producing for
domestic markets directly improves national food security whereas producing for
international markets creates employment, provides income and brings foreign exchange,
thereby indirectly contributing to food security. Commercial producers of aquatic food range
from large numbers of small-scale producers to a small number of large-scale producers.
Large commercial producers are generally better organized, often vertically integrated along
the supply chain, and they use capital intensive production systems
They have advantages concenof scale and are able to compete effectively on
international markets. Small producers tend to be less organised, not vertically integrated,
rely heavily on service providers and are capital extensive, thus, by and large, they continue
to cater for local markets. However, with as much as 80%of production in many Asian
countries deriving from small-scale producers, it is also evident that a large part of this
production, especially shrimp and marine finfish, enters into international trade. This
happens through the use of clusters, common collection points and through the activities of
buyers who supply domestic processors for exports.

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Small-scale producers may find it difficult to enter directly into international markets, mainly
because international corporate buyers need a regular supply of quality and safe products in
large quantities. This, however, does not imply that the products from small-scale farms are
of sub-optimal quality; however, it indicates that these farms are unable to produce regular
supplies of large quantities and comply with fish quality, safety standards and requirements
of the international markets. They can, however, achieve this by organising into
groups/clusters (often called producer organisations) which work in a more coordinated
manner for export purposes. The growing concentration of distribution at the retail level
through large international supermarket and hypermarket chains, as well as the emerging
consolidation on the processing side, has created the need for new innovative structures at
the producer level through networks of some sort and coordinated commercial activities.
These will be of paramount importance in development.
In the same manner, small-scale aquaculture producers should be encouraged to
explore new organisational structures and innovative commercial arrangements to exploit
the opportunities offered by globalisation and to enter international and regional markets.
This has already been demonstrated in many developing countries, particularly in Asia, and
not only for high-valued species. In fact, there is also growing regional trade in so-called low-
value farmed fish species.
Corporate social responsibility
In aquaculture production, as in other agriculture commodities, the choice of crop
should be driven by the market. Commodities such as pangasid catfish, tilapia, etc., grown in
Asia and Latin America, have been able to penetrate Western markets mainly based on their
low prices. Perhaps another way forward for such small-scale operators to gain or maintain
market access could be to produce for niche markets. A shift from a production driven
approach to a market driven approach with emphasis on the whole supply chain from
producer to consumer should be explored. Assisting small-scale farmers to gain market
access is increasingly considered as an important corporate social responsibility of all
involved in the market chain. Making this a significant reality is a challenge.
MARINE RESOURCES AND AQUAFEEDS
Some types of aquaculture rely on wild caught seed and broodstock. Although wild
caught shrimp seed and broodstock are phasing out, but still present in some countries there
remains a heavy reliance on wild caught seed of some marine and some freshwater species.
Continuing to rely on wild caught seed is a concern for the future of the industry and
adequate measures are needed to rectify this shortfall. There is a concern that the available
marine feed resources (fishmeal and fish oil) may not be sufficient to meet the demand of
projected aquaculture production. About 23.13 million t of compound aquafeeds were
produced in 2005 of which ca. 42% was consumed by aquaculture. The aquaculture sector
consumed ca. 3.06 million t or 56% of world fishmeal production and 0.78 million t or 87% of
total fish oil production in 2006, with over 50% of fish oil going into salmonid diets. The
amount of fishmeal and fish oil used within aquafeeds has grown over threefold between
1992 and 2006. This increase has been possible as the poultry sector gradually reduced its
reliance on fishmeal.
Besides fishmeal or fishmeal based diets, ca. 5 million to 6 million t of low-
value/trash fish are used as direct feed in aquaculture production worldwide. A recent
estimate places the Asian use of trash fish as fish feed at about 1.6 million to 2.8 million
t/year. In addition, large amounts, yet to be quantified, are also used by the pet food industry
and the fur animal sector. Fishmeal and fish oil production have remained static over the
past decade and a significant increase is not anticipated in the foreseeable future.

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Fig.3 Salmon farming in seacages, Chile
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS
The environmental impacts of aquaculture development have received a high degree
of attention over the past three decades, typically in cases where societal benefits were
negatively affected by unregulated aquaculture development, although these claims may not
always be supported by hard evidence. With the increasing demand for environmental
protection and services in a situation of diminishing land, water and feed resources, this
attention is likely to become more pronounced in the coming decades. With weak or
improper regulations for the allocation and use of natural resources, conflicts can arise
between resource users. Invariably, less influential and disadvantaged stakeholders are
denied access to such resources. Unregulated or improperly regulated aquaculture
development also results in a high discounting rate on the use of natural resources capacity
and, therefore, encourages practices that exploit them beyond renewal.
The main concerns articulated by the general public and environmentally conscious
community groups will continue to be echoed. These concerns include the following:
• sustainability of resources used in aquaculture;
• impact of aquaculture on aquatic biodiversity;
• sustainability of fish feed practices;
• use of alien species in aquaculture;
• escapees and consequent effects on wild populations;
• release of organic matter into natural waters;
• discharge of antibacterial and chemical residues into natural environment;
• over fishing of wild species for aquaculture;
• weakness in spatial planning and competition with other activities, etc.
DIVERSIFICATION AND EXPANSION
It is natural that successful fish farmers wish to expand and/or diversify their
operations. Also there will be newcomers to the industry. The question is whether there will
be enough suitable land, fresh or coastal waters for fish farming, globally. There are regional
and national differences, and some regions and/or countries will have adequate land and
water resources while others may not. Thus, many countries are seriously considering
expanding aquaculture production into marine waters (open ocean aquaculture)

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The issues are as follows:
Are we ready for such a move?
• Do we have adequate knowledge on the costs and benefits of such a move?
• Do we have adequate laws and regulations to protect ocean environments from the
pollutants and environmental threats arising from such production activities?
• Where such systems exist, are there enough resources to implement them?
• Will open ocean aquaculture be economically feasible?
COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS
In recent years, the demand for reliable and timely information on the status and
trends of aquaculture has greatly increased. The demand stems from the need to formulate
sound policies and development plans, and implement and monitor them. The demand also
stems from the need to respond to reporting requirements of international agreements and to
public demand for transparency and accountability. There have been many attempts to
improve the information base on aquaculture, globally. In Asia, the base for the improvement
of information was made possible through more formal networking amongst countries and
institutions. There is great need to establish more networks in other parts of the world. As
globalization proceeds, with increasing flows of products, services and investment across
regions, the need for more communication between regions will also increase. New
technologies would also enhance and facilitate such progress.
AQUACULTURE INSURANCE
The rapidly increasing production processes involved in aquaculture development
(e.g. intensification, use of submergible cages, recirculation systems, aquaponics, etc.) can
significantly increase the vulnerability of farms to disease outbreaks, storm damage and
other risks. Thus, recently, there has been an increasing demand for insurance schemes to
share and cover the risks involved. Aquaculture insurance is a risk management tool and
demand for aquaculture insurance schemes is now at an all- time high. There are about
8000 aquaculture insurance policies in force worldwide, but these are unevenly distributed
across the sector, with few or none in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa, south America
and large parts of Asia. Insurance will be an issue requiring due attention in the future by
stakeholders, particularly the entrepreneurs, investors and governments. It remains a
challenge of applying such financial risk management strategies to small-scale farmers.
UNEXPLORED OPPORTUNITIES
The aquaculture sector may benefit from tapping some unexplored opportunities.
Open water and offshore Mariculture are seen as key unexplored opportunities for producing
aquatic food for the future. This would need to be supported by appropriate policy and
planning, including open water zoning, legal and management frameworks. Development of
genetically-improved aquatic organisms (‘designer fish’) with special characteristics (e.g.
market requirements, environmental characteristics, and disease control and production
efficiency) will take place as acceptability and public perception for such products are
improving and/or changing. More efficient feeds tailored for specific needs (‘designer feeds’)
will be developed to improve resource use efficiency in the aquafeed sector. Use of
vegetable proteins and lipids to replace fishmeal and fish oil will be further considered and
feeds to suit specific dietary requirements of fish and crustaceans, that are economical to
use in semi-industrial or commercial farming, will be developed. As fishmeal use is likely to
increase for tropical omnivorous species (e.g. carp, tilapia and milkfish) and shrimp in Asia,
as these industries expand, the great opportunity and challenge for aquaculture will be the
reduction of fishmeal usage for omnivorous species.
Increased attention to recreational fisheries, eco-tourism and ornamental fish
production will widen the horizon of aquaculture’s contribution to the society. Non-food uses
of aquaculture products, including development of innovative re-use technologies for by-
products and waste mate rial from aquaculture products (e.g. salmon skin, seaweed

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washings, etc.) show potential for future investment. Marine bio-active compounds,
neutraceuticals, natural products, etc., from marine organisms, algae in particular, appear to
play a significant role in pharmaceutical industry. Pet foods presently use a large amount of
wild caught fish, and commitments have been made by the industry to eliminate use of such
marine resources. Aquaculture could provide an alternative source, opening a significant
new market.
SELF–EVALUATION:
In 2-5 sentences, discuss each of the following questions in a brief paragraph. (5points
each).
1. What are the recent trends in aquaculture development and major challenges?
2. How environmental and social aspects affect the aquaculture?
3. Explain the unexplored opportunities in aquaculture?
REVIEW OFCONCEPTS
LET US REMEMBER
Aquaculture production is growing and contributing in increasing volumes to national
and international demand for aquatic products. This growing sector, however, needs
investment in market services, infrastructure information systems, processing, reliable year-
round supply capacity and marketing systems. While doing so, it will be necessary to
address the challenges in many markets to environment and sustainability concerns. Issues
such as carbon neutrality and energy requirements for food production are receiving more
attention. There is a drive towards integrating environmental costs into the value chain and
markets. Will this be possible? Who will pay?
Consumer demands for quality, safety and value for price of aquatic products are on
the increase and will continue in the coming years. These demands include product
consistency, reliability of supply, food safety, product choice and, more recently,
sustainability of production and social equity. Some of these demands are leading to the
need for new standards, and interest in labelling and certification of aquaculture systems and
products. Harmonised standards and responsible certification systems are becoming an
important concern.
Access to capital and investments are a must to sustainable development of the
aquaculture sector. However, if the current global economic crisis continues for some time,
the commercial expansion of the sector may be retarded. Adding to the economic crisis, the
prices of feed ingredients and fuel are also increasing, and, as a consequence, the cost of
production is increasing. Some farmers are finding it difficult to continue farming certain
species, whereas others are even converting fish farms to rice paddies. The long-term effect
of this situation is unclear and unpredictable; studies are needed in this area.
Another constraint to aquaculture development could be the unpredictable and
uncharacterised impact of climate change. Climate change presents unquantifiable threats of
temperature increase, weather and water supply. The past 5 years have seen
unprecedented impacts on the sector from natural disasters: aquaculture in Aceh
(Indonesia), Bangladesh, China and Myanmar have all suffered from severe natural
disasters. There is a need for the aquaculture sector to join other economic sectors in
preparing to address the potential impacts of global warming, and strengthen the adaptive
capacity of aquaculture farmers, particularly the more vulnerable small-scale farmers. A
counterpoint to the rapid development of global aquaculture is its limited development in

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sub-Saharan Africa. There is a strong belief that Africa has the full resource potential for
aquaculture growth. Although aquaculture is slowly finding its niche in many countries in
Africa, the overall contribution could be improved considerably, making Africa a high-priority
region for aquaculture development.
HOW MUCH HAVE YOU LEARNED?
Now that you have finished the lesson, let‟s find out how much you have learned from it
by answering the post-test. Answer this in your test notebook.
Post Test
Write T on the blank if the statement is correct. If false, write F, then underline the word/words
that makes/make the statement wrong then change to make it correct.
_____1.Aquaculture production is growing and contributing in increasing volumes to national
and international demand for aquatic products
_____2. Consumer demands for quality, safety and value for price of aquatic products are on
the increase and will continue in the coming years
_____3. Access to capital and investments are a must to sustainable development of the
aquaculture sector
_____4. The long-term effect of this situation is unclear and unpredictable; studies are needed
in this area
_____5. Climate change presents unquantifiable threats of temperature increase, weather and
water supply
_____6. The rapidly increasing production processes involved in aquaculture development
_____7. Aquaculture insurance is a risk management tool and demand for aquaculture
insurance schemes is now at an all- time high
_____8. In recent years, the demand for reliable and timely information on the status and trends
of aquaculture has greatly increased
_____9. Aquaculture can make a positive contribution to environmental restoration and can help
reduce the negative impacts of other human activities, such as fishing
_____10. In aquaculture production, as in other agriculture commodities, the choice of crop
should be driven by the market

10
REFERENCES
Benetti, D. D., Orhun, M. R. Sardenberg, B. O’Hanlon, B.Welch, A., Hoenig, R., Zink, I.,
Rivera, J. A., Denlinger, B., Bacoat, D. Palmer. K. and Cavalin, F. (2008) Advances in
hatchery and grow-out technology of cobia Rachycentron canadum (Linnaeus). Aquaculture
Research, 39, 701–711.
Brown, J. A., Minkoff, G. and Puvanendran, V. (2003). Larviculture of Atlantic cod (Gadus
morhua): progress, protocols and problems. Aquaculture, 227, 357–372.
FAO Fishstat Plus (2009). Universal software for fishery statistical time series. Version 2.30.
FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistical Unit.
Gatlin, D. M. III, Barrows, F. T., Brown, P., Dabrowski, K., Gaylord, T. G., Hardy, R. W.,
Herman, E., Hu, G., Krogdahl, Å., Nelson, R., Overturf, R., Rust, M., Sealey, W., Skonberg,
D., Souza, E. J., Stone, D., Wilson, R. and Wurtele, R. (2007). Expanding the utilization of
sustainable plant products in aquafeeds: a review. Aquaculture Research, 38, 551–579
Hong, W. and Zhang, Q. (2003). Review of captive bred species and fry production of
marine fish in China. Aquaculture, 227, 305–318.
Jalabert, B. (2005). Particularities of reproduction and oogenesis in teleost fish compared to
mammals. Reproduction Nutrition Development, 45, 261–279.
John S. Lucas and Paul C. Southgate (2013). Aquaculture farming aquatic animals and
plants. Second edition 9600 garsington road, oxford 500014-83000,USA pp.1-617
Kestemont, P., Jourdan, S., Houbart, M., Mélard, C., Paspatis, M., Fontaine, P., Cuvier, A.,
Kentouri, M. and Baras, E. (2003). Size heterogeneity, cannibalism and competition in
cultured predatory fish larvae: biotic and abiotic influences. Aquaculture, 227, 333–356.
Krogdahl, Å., Hemre, G.-I. and Mommsen, T. P. (2005). Carbohydrates in fish nutrition:
digestion and absorption in postlarval stages. Aquaculture Nutrition, 11, 103–122.
Lee, C.-S., O’Bryen, P. J. and Marcus, N. H. (eds.). (2005). Copepods in Aquaculture.
Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Ames, Iowa, USA. 418 pp.
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