Research Methodology

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Notes by: AKASH MAJJI

CONTENT
• UNIT I:
INTRODUCTION
DEFINATION
DIFF B/W SCIENCE AND RESEARCH AND INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE BASIC KNOWLEDGE
RESEARCH PROCESS AND TYPES
UNIT I:
INTRODUCTION
DEFINATION
DIFF B/W SCIENCE AND RESEARCH & INDUCTIVE, DEDUCTIVE BASIC KNOWLEDGE
RESEARCH PROCESS
RESEARCH TYPES
CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS IN INDIA
UNIT II:
SAMPLING
BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT [SAMPLE SIZE]
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

CONTENT
UNIT III:
DATA COLLECTION
CLASIFICATION OF DATA COLLECTION
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

INTRODUCTION
RESEARCH
Define Research:
• “Manipulation of things, concepts or
symbols for the purpose of generalizing
and to extend, correct or verify
knowledge aids in the construction of a
theory or in the practice of an art."

Relation b/w Science & Research
SCIENCE
• Def: science comes from the
Latin word “scientia”, which
simply means knowledge
modern definitions are
more complex and refer to
the step-by- step acquisition
of knowledge.
RESEARCH
• Def: It refers to the actual
gathering of information.
this can be by observation,
and can mean by gathering
information on the internet.
But when used in a
scientific context ,the rules
are more rigid.
SCIENCE
• Def: science comes from
the Latin word “scientia”,
which simply means
knowledge modern
definitions are more
complex and refer to the
step-by- step acquisition of
knowledge.
RESEARCH
information on the
internet. But when used in
a scientific context ,the
rules are more rigid.

Relation b/w Science & Research
SCIENCE
• Def: science comes from the
Latin word “scientia”, which
simply means knowledge
modern definitions are
more complex and refer to
the step-by- step acquisition
of knowledge.
RESEARCH
information on the internet.
But when used in a
scientific context ,the rules
are more rigid.
SCIENCE
• METHOD: The scientific
method involves the
process and starts with a
question. A systematic
approach that answers the
question through several
steps & ends with a
conclusion. The science and
knowledge is established.
RESEARCH
• STEP: Research is a step in
knowledge quest, and it is
first one. Once the
question is asked the
research follows, and it is
focused mainly on a
“question" or “hypothesis".
facts are either prove or
disprove the hypothesis in
the next step ,which is
experimentation.

INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE
LOGIC
INDUCTIVE:
It is a process of reasoning where by use arrive at
generalizations from particular facts it is a movement of
knowledge from particular observations/instances to
general rule or principle induction involves passage from
observed to unobserved. It involves two processes
observation and genre.
Example: It is observed in a no. Of cases that when price
increases less is purchased. Therefore, the generalization is
“WHEN PRICE INCREASES DEMAND FALLS”.

INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE
LOGIC
DEDUCTION:
It is a way of making particular interference from a
generalization. Deduction is a movement of knowledge from
a general rule to a particular case.
Theory Observation
Hypothesis Pattern
Observation Tentative Hypothesis
confirmation Theory
DEDUCTIVE
INDUCTIVE

TYPES OF RESEARCH
 APPLIED RESEARCH
 BASIC RESEARCH
 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
 ETHNOGRAPIC RESEARCH
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
 GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
 PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

TYPES OF RESEARCH
1) APPLIED RESEARCH: It refers to scientific study and
research that to solve practical problems. Applied research
is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness,
and develop innovative technologies, rather than to
acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake.
For example: Applied researchers may investigate ways to:
• Improve agricultural crop production.
• Treat or cure a specific disease.
• Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or
modes of transportation.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
2) BASIC RESEARCH (fundamental or pure): Is driven by a
scientists curiosity or interest in a scientific question. The
main motivation is to expand mans knowledge, not to
create or invent something. There is no obvious
commercial value to the discoveries that result from
basic research.
For example: Basic science investigations probe for answers
to questions such as:
• How did the universe begin?
• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?
• How do slime molds reproduce?
• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

TYPES OF RESEARCH
3) CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH: It refers to the systematic
investigation or statistical study of relationships among two or
more variables, without necessarily determining cause and
effect.
It Seeks to establish a relation/association/correlation
between two or more variables that do not readily lend
themselves to experimental manipulation.
For example: To test the hypothesis “ Listening to music lowers blood
pressure levels”
There are 2 ways of conducting research:
• Experimental :Group samples and make one group listen to music
and then compare the BP levels.
• Survey: Ask people how they feel?
How often they listen?

TYPES OF RESEARCH
4) DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH: It refers to research that provides an
accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual,
situation, or group. Descriptive research, also known as statistical
research.
These studies are a means of discovering new meaning,
describing what exists, determining the frequency with which
something occurs, and categorizing information.
 In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be
counted and studied, which has an impact of the lives of the
people it deals with.
For Example:
• Finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a
town.
• The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that
disease thus, more people will live a healthy life.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
5) ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH: It refer to the investigation
of a culture through an in-depth study of the members of
the culture; it involves the systematic collection,
description, and analysis of data for development of
theories of cultural behavior.
• It studies people, ethnic groups and other ethnic formations,
their ethno genesis, composition, resettlement, social welfare
characteristics, as well as their material and spiritual culture.
• Data collection is often done through participant observation,
interviews, questionnaires, etc.
• The purpose of ethnographic research is to attempt to
understand what is happening naturally in the setting and to
interpret the data gathered to see what implications could be
formed from the data.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
6) EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: Experimental research is an
objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of
predicting and controlling phenomena and examining probability and
causality among selected variables. The simplest experimental design
includes two variables and two groups of participants.
 The two variables(Independent versus Dependent variables):
• The IV is the predictor variable whereas the DV is the outcome variable.
• Researchers manipulate and control the IV to study its effect on. the DV.
 The two groups of participants (Control versus Experimental
group):
• Before beginning the experiment, the researcher (randomly) assigns
his/her sample to two different groups: the control group and the
experimental (treatment group or clinical group).
• The control group receives no manipulation of the IV (no treatment),
whereas the experimental group receives the manipulation of the IV.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
7) EXPLORATORY RESEARCH: It is a type of research
conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined.
Exploratory research helps determine the best research
design, data collection method and selection of subject
• The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for
decision-making by themselves, but they can provide significant
insight into a given situation.
• Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to. the
population at large.
• Exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on secondary
research such as reviewing available literature and/or data, or
qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management or competitors, and more
formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups,
projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
8) GROUNDED THEORY: It is a research approach designed to
discover what problems exist in a given social environment and how
the persons involved handle them; it involves formulation, testing, and
reformulation of propositions until a theory is developed.
Grounded theory is a research method that operates almost in a
reverse fashion from traditional research and at first may appear to be
in contradiction to the scientific method.
Four stages:
1. Codes: Identifying anchors that allow the key points of the data to be
gathered.
2. Concepts: Collections of codes of similar content that allows the data
to be grouped.
3. Categories: Broad groups of similar concepts that are used to
RESEARCH generate a theory.
4. Theory: A collection of explanations that explain the subject of the
research (hypotheses).

TYPES OF RESEARCH
9) HISTORICAL RESEARCH: It is research involving analysis of
events that occurred in the remote or recent past
APPILICATION:
• Historical research can show patterns that occurred in the past and over
time which can help us to see where we came from and what kinds of
solutions we have used in the past.
• Understanding this can add perspective on how we examine. current
events and educational practices.
The steps involved in the conduct of historical research:
1. Identification of the research topic and formulation of the research
problem or question.
2. Data collection or literature review
3. Evaluation of materials
4. Data synthesis
5. Report preparation or preparation of the narrative exposition

TYPES OF RESEARCH
10) PHENOMENLOGICAL RESEARCH: An inductive,
descriptive research approach developed from
phenomenological philosophy; its aim is to describe an
experience as it is actually lived by the person.
• Phenomenology is concerned with the study of experience from
the perspective of the individual, ‘bracketing’ taken-for- granted
assumptions and usual ways of perceiving.
• They are based in a paradigm of personal knowledge and
subjectivity, and emphasize the importance of personal
perspective and interpretation.
• As such they are powerful for understanding subjective experience,
gaining insights into people’s motivations and actions, and cutting
through the clutter of taken-for-granted assumptions and
conventional wisdom.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
11. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: It is research dealing
with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to
quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings,
attributes, and symbols.
Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-
depth understanding of human behavior and the
reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative
method investigates the why and how of decision
making, not just what, where, when.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
12. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: It refers to the systematic empirical
investigation of any phenomena via statistical, mathematical or
computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research
is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or
hypotheses pertaining to phenomena.
 Quantitative research is generally made using scientific methods,
which can include:
• The generation of models, theories and hypotheses.
• The development of instruments and methods for measurement.
• Experimental control and manipulation of variables.
• Collection of empirical data.
• Modeling and analysis of data.
• Evaluation of results.

TYPES OF RESEARCH PROCESS
I. Formulation of Research Problem
II. Extensive Literature Survey
III. Developing the Hypothesis
IV. Preparing the research Design
V. Determing the sample Design
VI. Data Collection
VII. Execution of the Project
VIII. Analysis of Data
IX. Hypothesis Testing
X. Generalizations &Interpretation
XI. Preparation of the report or Presentation of the Results

I. Formulation of Research Problem:
There are two types of research problem:
• relate to states of nature
• relationship between variables.
Essentially two steps are involved in define
research problem:
• understanding the problem thoroughly
• rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an
point of view.

II. Extensive Literature Survey:
• Once the problem is define, a brief summary of
it should be written down.
• It is compulsory for a research worker writing a
thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of
topic and submit it to necessary committee or
the research board for approval.

III. Developing the Hypothesis:
• Formulate hypothesis is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited
to the piece of research in hand because it has
to be tested.
• The role of the hypothesis is to guide the
researcher by delimiting the area of research
and to keep him on the right track.

IV. Preparing the Research Design:
The function of research design is to provide for
the collection of relevant evidence with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.
Research purpose may be grouped into four
categories:
(1) Exploration
(2) Description
(3) Diagnosis
(4) Experimentation.

V. Determing the sample Design:
• All the items under consideration in any field
of inquiry constitute ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
• A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry.
• It can be presumed that in such an inquiry
when all the items are covered no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
But in practice this may not be true.

A brief mention of the important sample
designs is as follows:
1) Deliberate sampling
2) Simple random sampling
3) Systematic sampling
4) Stratified sampling
5) Quota sampling
6) Cluster sampling and area sampling
7) Multi-stage sampling
8) Sequential sampling

VI Collecting the data:
• In dealing with any real life problem it is often
found that data at hand are inadequate, and
hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that
are appropriate.
• There are sever always of collecting the
appropriate data which differ considerably in
context of money costs, time and other resources
at the disposal of the researcher.

But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by
any one or more of the following ways:
1) By Observation
2) Through personal interview
3) Through telephone interviews
4) By mailing of questionnaires
5) Through schedules

VII.Execution of the project:
• Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct
lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable.
• The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time.
• If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed.
• In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers
may be coded.
• If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training
of the interviewers.

VII. Analysis of Data: The analysis of data requires a
number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories.
This stage mainly include:
1. Coding: operation is usually done at this stage
through which the categories of data are transformed
into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
2. Editing: the procedure that improves the quality of
the data for coding.
3. Tabulation: a part of the technical procedure wherein
the classified data are put in the form of tables.

Preparation of the Report or Presentation of
the Results
IX. Hypothesis Testing:
 The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or
more of such tests, depending upon the nature and
object of research inquiry.
 Hypothesis Testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it.
 If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may be
stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
researches in times to come.

Preparation of the Report or Presentation
of the Results
X. Generalizations and interpretation:
 If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it maybe
possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to
build a theory.
 As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability
to arrive at certain generalizations.
 If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might
seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory it is
known as interpretation.
 The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new
questions which in turn may lead to further researches.

Preparation of the Report or Presentation
of the Results
XI. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him.
The layout of the report should be as follows:
a) PRELIMINARY PAGES: The report should carry title
and date followed by acknowledgement sand
foreword.

b) THE MAIN TEXT:
 The report should have the following parts:
i. Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of
the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
ii. Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a
statement of finding sand recommendations in non-technical
language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
iii. Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in
logical sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
iv. Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should
again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact,
it is the final summing up.

c) THE END OF THE REPORT:
 appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical
data. Bibliography i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc.,
consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should
also be given specially in a published research report.
 Report should be written in a concise and objective style in
simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it
seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
 Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used
only if they present the information more clearly and
forcibly.
 Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the
various constraints experience din conducting research
operations may as well be stated.

• One expects scientific research to satisfy the
following criteria:
a) The purpose of research should be carefully defined and
common concepts be used.
b) The research method should be described in sufficient
detail to permit another researcher to repeat research for
further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are objective as possible

d) The researcher should report with complete frankness flaws
in procedural design and estimate their effects upon the
findings.
e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to
reveal its significance and methods of analysis should be
appropriate. the validity and reliability of data should be
checked carefully.
f) Conclusions should be confined to those justified by data of
the research an limited to those for which the data provide
an adequate basis.

g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher
is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a
person of integrity.
* IN OTHER WORDS :
 GOOD RESEARCH IS SYSTEMATIC
 GOOD RESEARCH IS LOGICAL
 GOOD RESEARCH IS EMPIRICAL
 GOOD RESEARCH IS REPICABLE

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS IN
INDIA
• RESEARCHERS IN INDIA PARTICULARLY THOSE ENGAGED IN EMPIRICAL
RESEARCH, ARE FACING SEVERAL PROBLEMS
* Some of the important points:
 LACK OF A SCIENTIFIC TRAINING IN THE METHODOLGY OF RESEARCH.
 EFFORTS SHOULD BE MADE TO DEVELOP SAISFACTORY LIASION AMONG ALL
CONCERNED FOR BETTER AND RELASTIC RESEARCHES.
 MOST OF THE BUSINESS UNITS IN OUR COUNTRY DO NOT HAVE THE CONFIDENCE
THAT THE MATERIAL SUPPLIED BY THEM TO RESEARCHERS WILL NOT BE MISUSED
AND AS SUCH THEY ARE OFTEN RECLUTANT IN SUPPLYINGTHE NEEDED IN
FORMATION TO RESEARCHERS.
 RESEARCH STUDIES OVERLAPPING ONE ANOTHER ARE UNDERTAKEN QUITE
OFTEN FOR WANT OF ADEQUATE INFORMATION.
 THERE DOES NOT EXIST A CODE OF CONDUCT FOR RESEARCHERS AND INTER-
UNIVERSITY AND INTERDEPARTMENTAL RIVALRIES ARE ALSO QUITE COMMON.

PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY RESEARCHERS IN
INDIA
 MANY RESEARCHERS IN OUR COUNTRY ALSO FACE THE DIFFICULTY OF
ADEQUATE AND TIMELY SECRETARIAL ASSISTANCE, INCLUDING COMPUTERIAL
ASSISTANCE.
 LIBRARY MANAGEMENT AND FUNTIONING IS NOT SATISFACTORY AT MANY
PLACES.
 THERE IS ALSO THE PROBLEM THAT MANY OF OUR LIBRARIES ARE NOT ABLE TO
GET COPIES OF OLD AND NEW Acts/Rules, REPORTS AND OTHER GOVERNMENT
PUBLICATIONS IN TIME.
 THERE IS ALSO DIFFICULTY OF TIMELY AVAILABILITY OF PUBLISED DATA FROM
VARIOUS GOVERNMENT AND OTHER AGENCIES DOING THIS JOB IN OUR
COUNTRY.
 THERE MAY, AT TIMES, TAKE PLACE THE PROBLEMS OF CONCEPTUALIZATION AND
ALSO PROBLEMS RELATING TO THE PROCESS OF DATA COLLECTION AND RELATED
THINGS.

SAMPLE
• SAMPLING: The process of selecting a number of
individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals
represent the larger group from which they were selecting.
SAMPLE
STUDY
POPULATION
TARGET
POPULATION

*Key points:
A sample is a “a smaller collection of units from
a population used to determine truths about
that population.”
The sample frame:
A list of all elements or other units containing
the elements in a population.
• Population: The larger group from individuals
are selected to participated in a study.

*Key points:
Target Population: A set of elements larger
than or different from the population sampled and
to which the researcher would like generalize study
findings.
STUDY
POPULATION
SOURCE
POPULATION
TARGET
POPULATION

*Key points:
THE PURPOSE OF SAMPLING: To gather data about
the population in order to make an inference that can be
generalized to the population.
CONDUCT FIELDWORK
SELECT ACTUAL SAMPLING UNITS
DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZE
PLAN OROCEDURE FOR SELECTING SAMPLING UNITS
DETERMINE IF A PROBABILITY OR [N-P S.M]WILL BE CHOSEN
SELECT A SAMPLING FRAME
DEFINE THE TARGET POPULATION

SAMPLE SIZE
“The size of the sample depends on a no. of factors and the
researchers have to give the statistically information before
they can get an answer.”
For example: these information like (confidence level, standard
deviation, margin of error & population size)to determine the
sample.
 Sample size formula is:
N = population size • e = Margin of error (percentage in decimal
form) • z = z-score
Another sample size formula is:
n = N*X / (X + N – 1),
where,
X = Zα/22 *p*(1-p) / MOE2,

SAMPLE SIZE
and Zα/2 is the critical value of the Normal distribution
at α/2 (for a confidence level of 95%, α is 0.05 and the
critical value is 1.96), MOE is the margin of error, p is
the sample proportion, and N is the population
size. Note that a Finite Population Correction has been
applied to the sample size formula.
Calculation of sample size: The use of statistical formulas
for determining the sample size implies, first of all, the
choice of a significant benchmark for the measures to be
made based on the results provided by the QUALITATIVE
RESERARCH.

SAMPLE SIZE
Determining the sample size: Fundamental
principle, the number of participants
considered acceptable to form a
representative essay is dependent on the type
of research.
Ex: 20% of 1000 people = 200 people; 10% of 5000 pers
= 500 pers. For small populations (under 100
persons), the sample size is approximately equal to
the population. For average populations (around 500
people) approx. 20%. For larger populations (it is 5000
pers), about 400 pers, but also a sample size of 1%
can be significant.

• Thus, for correlation studies, 30 participants are sufficient to
create a representative sample size (it is accepted that from
30 subjects, the distribution is normal). For the experimental
and quasi-experimental searches (similar to the experiment
except that the participants are not randomly divided into
two groups, we found the groups already formed).

SAMPLE SIZE
Standard Deviation:
 The standard deviation is a statistic that measures the
dispersion of a dataset relative to its mean and can be
calculated as the square root of the variance.
 It is calculated as the square root of variance by specifying
the variation between each data point relative to the mean.
 If the data points are from the mean, is a higher deviation
within the data set; consequently, out the data, the greater
the standard deviation.

SAMPLE SIZE
Sample size process:
• The sampling size process involves several specific
activities, namely:
* defining the population that is the object of the
research.
* choosing the sampling size frame.
* choosing the sampling size method.
* establishing the modalities of the selection of the
sample size units.
* determining the mother of the sample size.
* choosing the actual units of the sample size.
* conducting field activity.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
• THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
i) Quantitative Samplings
(a)Probability Sampling (b)Non-Probability Sampling
ii) Qualitative Samplings
TYPES

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
QUANTITATIVE SAMPLING
 Purpose to identify participants from whom to seek same
information
 Three Fundamental steps:
o Identify a population
o Define the Sample size
o Select the sample
 ISSUES:
o Nature of the sample(random sample)
o Size of the sample
o Method of selecting the sample

*key points:
IMPORTANT ISSUES:
o REPRESENTATION: The extent to which the sample is
representative of the population.
o GENERALIZATION: The extent to which the results of the
study can be reasonably extended from the sample to the
population.
o SAMPLING ERROR: The chance occurrence that are
randomly selected sample is not representative of the
population due to errors inherent in the sampling technique.
o SAMPLING BIAS: Some aspects of the researcher’s
sampling design creates bias in the data.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
TYPES OF SAMPLING IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:
A. PROBABILITY SAMPLES
B. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLES
A)PROBABILITY SAMPLES(SELECTING RANDOM SAMPLES):
 Best method to achieve a representative sample
 FOUR TECHNIQUES:
a) Random
b) Stratified Random
c) Cluster
d) Systematic

PROBABILITY SAMPLE
1) Random Sampling: Selecting subjects so that all
members of a population have an equal and
independent chance of being selected.
 ADVANTAGES:
 Easy to conduct.
 High Probability of achieving a representative sample.
 Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures.
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Identification of all members of the population can be difficult.
 Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult.

PROBABILITY SAMPLE
SELECTION PROCESS:
o Identify and defined the population.
o Determine the desired sample size.
o List all members of the population.
o Assign all members on the list consecutive number.
o Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of
random no. &read the appropriate no. of digits.

PROBABILITY SAMPLE
2) Stratified Random Sampling: The population is divided
into two or more groups called strata, according to same
criterion such as geographic location, grade level , age , or
income and sub samples are randomly selected from each strata.
 ADVANTAGES:
 More accurate sample.
 Can be used for both proportional &Non-probability samples.
 Representation of sub groups in the sample.
 DISADVANTAGES:
 Identification of all members of the population ca be difficult.
 Identification members of all sub groups can be difficult.

PROBABILITY SAMPLE
o Identify and define the population.
o Identify the variable & Sub groups for which you
want to guarantee aspirate representation.
o Classify all members of the population as members
of one of the identified subgroups.

CHINA
AMERICA
• [RANDOM
SUBSAMPLES
OF n/n]
EUROPE
STRATA
CLIENTS

PROBABILITY SAMPLE
3)Cluster Sampling:
 The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not individuals,
within the defined population sharing similar characteristics.
 Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members of
the population can be found.
Examples: neighborhoods, school districts, schools, classrooms.
 Advantages:
 Very useful when populations are large and spread over a large
geographic region.
 Convenient and expedient.
 Do not need the names of everyone in the population.

PROBABILITY SAMPLE
 Disadvantages:
 Representative is likely to become an issue.
Selection process:
o Identify and define a logical cluster.
o List all clusters that make up the population of clusters.
o Estimate the avg no. of population members per cluster.

o Determine the no. of cluster needed by dividing the
sample size by the estimated size of a cluster.
o Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters.
o Include in the study all individuals in each selected
cluster.

POPULATION
CLUSTER 3CLUSTER 2CLUSTER 1
Randomly sample within each cluster
Sample
1
Sample
2
Sample
3
CLUSTER SAMPLING

PROBABILITY SAMPLE
4)SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING: Selecting every Kth subject from a list of the
members of the population.
 Advantage:
 Very easily done
 Disadvantage:
 Subgroups
 Some members of the population don’t have an equal chance of
being included.
Example: to select a sample of 25 dorm rooms in your clg dorm, makes a list of all the room
numbers in the dorm. For example there are 100 rooms, divide the total number of
rooms(100)by the number of rooms you want in the sample(25). The answer is 4.This means
that you are going to select every fourth dorm room from the list. First of all, we have to
determine the random starting point. This step can be done by picking any point on the table
of random numbers ,and read across or down until you come to a number b/w 1&4.This is
your random starting point. For instance ,your random starting point is “3”.This means you
select dorm room 3 as your first room ,and then every fourth room down the list
(3,7,11,15,19 etc.)until you have 25 rooms selected.

PROBABILITY SAMPLE
o Obtain a list of the population.
o Determine what K is equal to by dividing the size of the
population by the desired sample size.
o Start at same random place in the population list.
o Take every Kth individual on the list.

A)PROBABILITY SAMPLES(NON-RANDOM SAMPLES):
Allows a procedure governed by chance to select the
sample; controls for sampling bias.
 Non Random Samplings Methods:
1. Convenience Sampling
2. Purposive Sampling
3. Quota Sampling

NON-PROBABLITY SAMPLE
1) Convenience Sampling: The process of including
whoever happens to be available at the time. This
is also know as “accidental” or “haphazard”
sampling.
Disadvantage:
• Difficult in Determing how much of the effect
(dependent variable) results from the course
(independent variable).

2) Purposive Sampling: The process where by a
researcher selects a sample based on experience
or knowledge of the group sampled is also called
“Judgment Sampling”.
Disadvantage:
• Potential for in accuracy in the researcher’s criteria
& resulting sampling selections.

3) Quota Sampling: The process where by
researcher gather data from individuals possessing
identified characteristics and quotas.
Disadvantage:
• People who are less accessible (more difficult to
contact, more reluctant to participate) are under-
representative.

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES II
QUALITATIVE SAMPLING
 Researchers in qualitative research select their
participants.
Two Fundamental steps:
o CHARCTERISTICS
o KNOWLEDGE
PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING:
It is when the researcher chooses persons or sites
which provides specific knowledge about the topic of
the study.

TYPES OF PURPOSEFUL SAMPLE:
1. MAXIMAL VARIATION SAMPLING
2. TYPICAL SAMPLING
3. THEORY or CONCEPT SAMPLING
4. HOMOGENEOUS SAMPLING
5. CRITICAL SAMPLING
6. OPPORTUNITIC SAMPLING
7. SNOWBALL SAMPLING

i. Maximal Variation Sampling: It is when you select
individuals that differs on a certain characteristics. In this
strategy you should first identify the characteristics and
then find individuals or sites which display that
characteristic.
ii. Typical sampling: It is when you study a person or a
site that is “typical” to those unfamiliar with the situation.
You can select a typical sample by collecting demographic
data or survey data about all cases.

iv. Theory or concept Sampling: It is when you select
individuals or sites because they can help you to generate
a theory or specific concepts within the theory. In this
strategy you need a full understanding in the concept or
the theory expected to discover during the study.
v. Homogeneous Sampling: It is when you select
certain sites or people because they posses similar
characteristics. In this strategy, you need to identify the
characteristics and find individuals or sites that posses it.

vi. Critical Sampling: It is when you study an exceptional
case represents the central phenomenon in dramatic
terms.
vii. Opportunities Sampling: It is used after data
collection begins, when you may find that you need collect
new information to answer your research question.
viii.Snowball Sampling: It is when you don’t know the
best people to study because of the unfamiliarity of the
topic or the complexity of events. So you ask participants
during interviews to suggests other individuals to be
sampled.

DATA COLLECTION
DATA COLLECTION:
 It is the process by which the researcher collects the information
needed to answer the research problem.
 The task of data collection begins after a research problem has
been defined and research design chalked out.
 THE SELECTION OF A METHOD FOR COLLECTING
INFORMATION DEPENDS UPON THE:
 Research available
 Credibility
 Analysis and Reporting
 Resources
 The skill of the Evaluator

DATA COLLECTION
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:
a) PRIMARRY DATA: Primary Data are those which are
collected for the first time and are original in
character.
b) SECONDARY DATA: Secondary Data are those
which have already been collected by someone
else and which have through some statistical
analysis.

DATA COLLECTION
a) Types of Primary Data:
i. EXPERIMENTS
ii. SURVEYS
iii. OBSERVATION
iv. INTERVIEW
v. QUESTIONAIRES
vi. SCHEDULES

DATA COLLECTION
i. EXPERIMENTS:
 An experiment refers to an investigation in which a
factor or variable under study is isolated and it’s
effect are measured.
 In an experiment the investigator measures the
effect of an experiment which he conducts
intentionally.

DATA COLLECTION
EXPERIMENT PROCEDURE:
• Determine the hypothesis to be tested and independent
and dependent variable involved in it.
• Operationalize the variables by identifying their
measurable dimension.
Types of experimental plan:
a)One group plan: Use same group as experimental and
control group.
b)Matched groups plan: Consist of two identical group-
one experimental and other control group.

DATA COLLECTION
1) CHOOSE THE SETTINGS: Field or Laboratory.
2) Make the experimental condition as real as possible to
make the findings reliable.
3) Make the record of pre-experimental condition.
4) Introduce appropriate methods for controlling
extraneous variables that are not manipulated in the
experiment.
5) Apply the experimental treatment and record
observations using appropriate measurement devices.
6) Analyze results using statistical devices.
7) Interpret the results.

DATA COLLECTION
ADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTAL
METHOD:
• Best method to determine causal relationship
between variables.
• Extraneous method can be controlled more
effectively.
• The elements of human error is minimize.
• Experiments can be repeated to verify results.

DATA COLLECTION
DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTAL
METHOD:
• Difficult to establish experimental group and
control group
• Less scope for experimentation for human beings.
• Time consuming and expensive.
• Difficult to design.
• Not useful in study of past or future.

*KEY POINTS:
THE SETTING OF AN EXPERIMENT MAY BE:
 LABORATORY
 FIELD EXPERIMENT

*KEY POINTS:
A. LABORATORY:
• A laboratory experiment is an investigation
conducted in a setting created specifically for
the purpose.
• In this the cause and effect relationship
between certain variables is tested.

*KEY POINTS:
CHARACTERISED OF LABORATOY METHOD:
• Investigator creates a situation in the lab very
much similar to natural setting.
• He controls all extraneous variables.
• Manipulates independent variables and record
effect on dependent variable.
• He has complete control over lab.
• Measurement are more precise.
• These experiments have high internal validity.
• Experiments can be replicated.

*KEY POINTS:
LIMITATIONS /DRAWBACKS OF
LAB METHOD:
• It is very complex procedure.
• Highly structured, less flexibility.
• It lacks external validity.
• They lack realism and their results may not be
generalized in real life situations.
• Lack of strength of independent variables as the
real life situation is weak.

*KEY POINTS:
B. FIELD EXPERIMENT:
• This is an experiment conducted in a real life
situation in which the experiment conducted in a
real life suited to both testing the theory and
finding solution to practical social problems.
• It has been used for studying a variety of social
action.
• Programmes such as improving quality of work life
in assembly lines, post offices and insurance
companies.

*KEY POINTS:
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIELD EXPERIMENT:
• The variable in a field experiment usually have a
stronger effect than those of lab.
• It permits unequivocal determination of causal
relationship while non experimental studies provide
only correlation.
• Well suited for studying complex syndromes and
social processes.

*KEY POINTS:
LIMITATION:
• Practical difficulty involved in the manipulation
of independent variables.
• Lack of precision in measurement.
• It is very difficult process as it calls for social
skills.
• Require prolonged contact of investigator with
the system. Require high cognitive skill.

DATA COLLECTION
ii. SURVEYS:
• Survey is a method of gathering information from the
respondents for any pre-determined research objective.
• In most of the scientific research, information is obtained
from the representative sample of the population by
administering the questionnaire to the respondents.
• The information may include the demographic and socio-
economic characteristics, and also it may pertains the
attitudinal aspects, intentions, and awareness of the
respondents participating in survey.
• Survey may also covers overall assessment of a
respondent about any object and his/her favorableness or
un- favorableness opinion about it.

DATA COLLECTION
 Survey is of two types: (i) Census Survey and (ii)
Sample Survey
i. Census Survey:
• The total count of all units of the population for a certain
characteristic is termed as census survey i.e. it is a complete
enumeration.
• This type of survey or inquiry involves a great deal of time, money
and manpower.
• As it involves lot of resources, it is very difficult to conduct,
particularly when the inquiry is large in scale.
• Truly speaking, this method is practically beyond the reach of
ordinary researchers. Even the government adopts this method in
very rare cases e.g. population census conducted once in a decade,
agricultural census and manufacturing establishment etc.

DATA COLLECTION
ii. Sample Survey:
• When only a part of the population is selected and enumerated, then
it is called sample enumeration or sample survey. It is possible to
obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only a part of total
population and as such there is no utility of census survey.
• A sample survey will usually be less expensive than a census survey
and the desired information will be obtained in less time.
• This does not imply that economy is the consideration in conducting
a sample survey. It is most important that a degree of accuracy of
results is also maintained.
• Occasionally, the technique of sample survey is applied to verify the
results obtained from a census survey.
• It has been well established fact that in many situations a well
conducted sample survey can provide much more precise results than
from census survey.

DATA COLLECTION
Classification of Survey Method:
a) Personal Interview
b) Telephone Interview
1. Personal Interview:
 Personal interview is a face to face interpersonal
conversation.
 In this method, the interviewer contacts
personally and asks the respondent seeking
answers pertinent to the research problem.

DATA COLLECTION
Personal interviews can be classified into six
categories:
• Door-to-door Interview
• Mall intercept Interview
• Office Interview
• Self Administered Questionnaire
• Omnibus survey
• Computer assisted Interviews

DATA COLLECTION
(a)Door-to-door interview:
• This is the technique of gathering information
from the respondents at their home in person and
seeks a face to face interview.
• This method is ideal as it allows the respondents
to provide answers in a comfortable home
environment.
• But in some circumstances, the respondents might
not participate, as they might be busy at their work
place and their require much time.

DATA COLLECTION
(b) Mall Intercept Interviews:
• In this interview technique, a respondent who actually is a
visitor to a shopping mall is intercepted by the interviewer
for obtaining responses.
• The interviewer stationed at the entrance of the shopping
mall invite the respondents to participate in a structured
interview.
• The major advantage of this technique is cost-efficient. A
researcher can also use efficiently a big respondent pool
available at different mall location.
• This technique is very easy to execute. But the major
disadvantages of the technique is getting very low responses
from the respondents. Because they come to the mall for
shopping and not for answering the questions.

DATA COLLECTION
(c) Office Interviews:
• In this technique, an interviewer visit the organization and
conducts an interview at the work place of the respondents.
• This type of interview is conducted when the research objective is
to obtain the consumer attitude of any industrial product or
service.
• Probably this technique will be able to generate accurate
responses than home interview technique for such kind of
objective.
• Office interviews are usually conducted after taking prior
appointment from the interviewer.
• In an organization, various categories of employees can provide a
variety of information. A researcher can focus on these different
categories of employees to generate the responses in accordance
to the specific research objective.

DATA COLLECTION
(d) Self Administered Questionnaire:
• In this method, no interviewer is involved. A series of
questions are presented to the respondents without the
intervention of the interviewer.
• Self administered questionnaire are generally used in
hotels. It consists of series of questions to the
respondents to ask about their services.
• In the absence of interviewer makes this interview
technique bias free from the view point of the research.
• On the other hand, personal clarification to some of the
questions by the interviewer is completely missing. So
answer to some of the misunderstood questions might be
affected.

DATA COLLECTION
(e) Omnibus Surveys:
• Omnibus survey is that type of survey which is conducted in a
regular schedule with personal interviews where a series of
questions are provided by the survey-conducting company.
• The questionnaire consists of series of questions on some
diverse research topics particularly in marketing research, the
set of question might be provided by different clients.
• As a form of continuous marketing research, such surveys are
conducted at regular intervals and covers a range of topics.
For Example: The need of data for before and after study can be
easily fulfilled through omnibus survey technique as
respondents can be easily tracked. However, there might be
respondent’s unwillingness to answer because of monotony
and boredom.

DATA COLLECTION
(f) Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing(CAPI)
Technique:
• CAPI technique has become increasingly popular for collecting the
data for large scaled household survey.
• This is a type of personal interview technique where the inputs
are directly administered using laptop rather than using paper
questionnaire.
• In this method, interviewer carry laptop from which questions are
read out and responses of the questions are entered directly,
which is then transmitted to centre via modem.
• This technique reduces the time for data collection as well as time
for coding and analysis.
• This method is considered to be one of the most influential
developments in survey now a day.

DATA COLLECTION
2) Telephone Interview:
• Easy access to telephone facility have changed the
survey techniques in the field of business research.
• This method is suitable when there are only few
questions, but large number of respondents over a
wide geographical area and time available for
interview is very short.
• In this method, the interviewer ask the series of
questions to the respondent and record the
responses on the paper.

DATA COLLECTION
Advantages of SURVEYS:
 Relatively easy to administer.
 Can be developed in less time (compared to other data-
collection methods).
 Cost-effective, but cost depends on survey mode.
 Conducted remotely can reduce or prevent geographical
dependence.
 Capable of collecting data from a large number
of respondents.
 broad range of data can be collected (e.g., attitudes,
opinions, beliefs, values, behavior, factual).
 Standardized surveys are relatively free from several types
of errors.

DATA COLLECTION
Disadvantages of SURVEYS:
• Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate,
honest answers.
• Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers
that present themselves in a unfavorable manner.
• Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any
given answer because of lack of memory on the subject, or
even boredom.
• Surveys with closed-ended questions may have a lower
validity rate than other question types.
• Customized surveys can run the risk of containing certain
types of errors.

DATA COLLECTION
iii. Observation Method: Observation method is a
method under which data from the field is collected
with the help of observation by the observer or by
personally going to the field.
ANALYZE & INTERPET DATA COLLECTED
COMPLIE DATA COLLECTED
CONDUCT THE OBSERVATION
SELECT PARTICIPANTS
DETERMINE WHAT NEED TO BE OBSERVED

DATA COLLECTION
Classification:
a. Structured Observation: When the observation is
characterized by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, the style of recording the observed
information, standardized conditions of observation
and the selection of related data of observation.
b. Unstructured Observation: When it takes place
without the above characteristics.
c. Participant Observation: When the observer is
member of the group which he is observing then it is
Participant Observation.

DATA COLLECTION
d. Non-Participant Observation: When observer is
observing people without giving any information to
them then it is Non-Paricipant Observation.
e. Uncontrolled Observation: When the observation
takes place in natural condition i.e., uncontrolled
observation. It is done to get spontaneous picture of
life and persons.
f. Controlled Observation: When observation takes
place according to pre arranged plans, with
experimental procedure then it is controlled
observation generally done in laboratory under
controlled condition.

DATA COLLECTION
Advantages of Observation:
Produces Large quantities of data.
All data obtained from observations are usable.
The observation technique can be stopped or
begun at any time.
Relative Inexpensive

DATA COLLECTION
Disadvantages of Observation:
Interviewing selected subjects may provide
more information, economically, than waiting
for the spontaneous occurrence of the situation.
It is expensive method.
Limited information.
Extensive Training is needed.

DATA COLLECTION
iv. Interview Method:
 The Interview Method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral- verbal responses.
 Interviewer asks questions (which are aimed to get
information required for study) to respondent.
ANALYASE AND INTERPET DATA COLLECTED FROM THE INTERVIEW
CONDUCT THE INTERVIEW
SELECT SUBJECT/KEY RESONDANT
PREPARE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

DATA COLLECTION
Classifications:
a) Structured Interviews: In this case, a set of pre-
decided questions are there.
b) Unstructured Interviews: In this case, we don’t
follow a system of pre-determined questions.
c) Focused Interviews: Attention is focused on the
given experience of the respondent and its possible
effects.
d) Clinical Interviews: Concerned with broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of an individual’s life experience.

DATA COLLECTION
a) Group Interviews: a group of 6 to 8 individuals is
interviewed.
b) Qualitative and quantitative Interviews:
divided on the basis of subject matter i.e.,
whether qualitative or quantitative.
c) Individual Interviews: Interviewer meets a
single person and interviews him.
d) Selection Interviews: Done for selection of
people for certain jobs.

DATA COLLECTION
Advantages:
• More information at greater depth can be obtained.
• Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer.
• Personal information can be obtained.
Disadvantages:
• It is an expensive Method
• Interviewer bias
• Respondent bias
• Time consuming

DATA COLLECTION
v. QUESTIONNAIRE:
• A Questionnaire is sent ( by post or by mail ) to the
persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the Questionnaire.
• A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed in a definite order on a form.
ANALYZE AND INTERPET DATA COLLECTED
TABULATE DATA COLLECTED
ADMINISTER THE QUESYIONNAIRE
SELECT YOUR RESPONDENTS
PREPARE QUESTIONS

DATA COLLECTION
Classifications:
• Open-ended questions: This gives the respondents
the ability to respond in their own words.
• Close-ended or fixed alternative questions: This
allows the respondents to choose one of the given
alternatives.
Types:- Dichotomous questions and Multiple
Questions.

DATA COLLECTION
Essentials of Good Questionnaire:
• Should be short and simple.
• Follow a sequence of questions from easy to difficult
one.
• Technical terms should be avoided.
• Should provide adequate space for answers in
questionnaire.
• Directions regarding the filling of questionnaire
should be given Physical Appearance – Quality of
paper, Color.
• Sequence must be clear.

DATA COLLECTION
Advantages:
• Low cost- Even when the universe is large and is widespread.
• Free from interviewer bias.
• Respondents have adequate time to think through the answers.
• Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be
reached conveniently.
• Large samples can be used.
Disadvantages:
• Time consuming.
• The respondents need to be educated and cooperative.
• This method is slow.
• Possibility of unclear replies.

DATA COLLECTION
vi. SCHEDULE:
• Very similar to Questionnaire method.
• The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the
enumerator who is specially appointed for the
purpose.
• Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the
questions from the Questionnaire in the order listed,
and records the responses in the space provided.
• Enumerator must be trained in administering the
schedule.

DATA COLLECTION
Advantages:
• It is a useful method in case the informants are illiterate.
• The researcher will solve the non-response issue as the
enumerators go to get the information directly.
• In extensive studies, it is very useful and can get more
reliable data.
Disadvantages:
• It's a very expensive process. It's a method that takes a
lot of time.
• Even in the 'presence of the researcher the respondents'
may not respond to some personal questions.

DATA COLLECTION
b) Types of Secondary Data:
1. PUBLISHED SOURCES
i. INTERNATINAL
ii. GOVERNMENT
iii. CORPORATION
iv. INSTITUTION
2. UNPUBLISHED SOURCES

DATA COLLECTION
a) PUBLISHED SOURCES: Various govt,
international and local agencies publish statistical
data, and chief among them.
 INTERNATIONAL PUBLICATIONS: They are UNO, WHO,
Nature etc.
 OFFICAL PUBLICATIONS OF Govt: Department of Drug
Administration, Central Bureau Of Statistics.
 SEMI-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS: Semi-Govt. like
Municipal Corporation, District Board, etc publish reports.

DATA COLLECTION
b) UNPUBLISHED SOURCES:
• Records maintained by various govt. and private
offices.
• Researches carried out by individual research.
scholars in the universities or research institutes.
PRECAUTONS IN THE USE OF SECONDARY DATA:
i. RELIBILITY DATA:MAY BE TESTED BY CHECKING:
 Who collected the data?
 What were the sources of the data?
 Was the data collected properly?

DATA COLLECTION
ii. Suitability of data:
 Data that are suitable for one enquiry may not be
necessarily suitable in another enquiry.
 Objective, scope and nature of the original
enquiry must be studied.
iii. Adequacy of data:
 Data is considered inadequate, if they are related
to area which may be either narrower or wider
than area of the present enquiry.

Research Methodology

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