2. ProductionProduction
The process of transformation of resourcesThe process of transformation of resources
(like land, labour, capital and(like land, labour, capital and
entrepreneurship) into goods and servicesentrepreneurship) into goods and services
of utility to consumers and/or producers.of utility to consumers and/or producers.
Goods includes all tangible items such asGoods includes all tangible items such as
furniture, house, machine, food, car,furniture, house, machine, food, car,
television etctelevision etc
Services include all intangible items, likeServices include all intangible items, like
banking, education, management,banking, education, management,
consultancy, transportation.consultancy, transportation.
3. Types of InputsTypes of Inputs
TechnologyTechnology
determines the type, quantity and proportion ofdetermines the type, quantity and proportion of
inputs.inputs.
also determines the maximum limit of total outputalso determines the maximum limit of total output
from a given combination of inputs.from a given combination of inputs.
at anyat any pointpoint of time, technology will be given; impactof time, technology will be given; impact
of technology can be seen only over aof technology can be seen only over a periodperiod ofof
time.time.
Fixed and Variable InputsFixed and Variable Inputs
Variable inputVariable input : that can be made to vary in the short run,: that can be made to vary in the short run,
e.g. raw material, unskilled/semi skilled labour, etc.e.g. raw material, unskilled/semi skilled labour, etc.
Fixed input:Fixed input: that cannot be varied in the short run, e.g. land,that cannot be varied in the short run, e.g. land,
machine, technology, skill set, etc.machine, technology, skill set, etc.
4. Factors of ProductionFactors of Production
LandLand
Anything which is gift of nature and not the result of human effort,Anything which is gift of nature and not the result of human effort,
e.g. soil, water, forests, mineralse.g. soil, water, forests, minerals
Reward is called asReward is called as rentrent
LabourLabour
Physical or mental effort of human beings that undertakes thePhysical or mental effort of human beings that undertakes the
production process. Skilled as well as unskilled.production process. Skilled as well as unskilled.
Reward is called asReward is called as wages/ salarywages/ salary
CapitalCapital
Wealth which is used for further production as machine/Wealth which is used for further production as machine/
equipment/intermediary goodequipment/intermediary good
It is outcome of human effortsIt is outcome of human efforts
Reward is called asReward is called as interestinterest
EnterpriseEnterprise
The ability and action to take risk of collecting, coordinating, andThe ability and action to take risk of collecting, coordinating, and
utilizing all the factors of production for the purpose of uncertainutilizing all the factors of production for the purpose of uncertain
economic gainseconomic gains
Reward is called asReward is called as profitprofit
5. Production FunctionProduction Function
A technological relationship between physicalA technological relationship between physical
inputs and physical outputs over a given periodinputs and physical outputs over a given period
of time.of time.
shows theshows the maximummaximum quantity of the commodityquantity of the commodity
that can be produced per unit of time for each setthat can be produced per unit of time for each set
of alternative inputs, and with a given level ofof alternative inputs, and with a given level of
production technology.production technology.
Normally a production function is written as:Normally a production function is written as:
Q = f (L,K,I,R,E)Q = f (L,K,I,R,E)
where Q is the maximum quantity of output of awhere Q is the maximum quantity of output of a
good being produced, and L=labour; K=capital;good being produced, and L=labour; K=capital;
l=land; R=raw material; E= efficiency parameter.l=land; R=raw material; E= efficiency parameter.
6. Production Function with OneProduction Function with One
Variable InputVariable Input
Also termed asAlso termed as variable proportion productionvariable proportion production
functionfunction
It is the short term production functionIt is the short term production function
Shows the maximum output a firm can produce whenShows the maximum output a firm can produce when
only one of its inputs can be varied, other inputsonly one of its inputs can be varied, other inputs
remaining fixed:remaining fixed:
where Q = output, L = labour and K = fixed amount ofwhere Q = output, L = labour and K = fixed amount of
capitalcapital
Total product is a function of labour:Total product is a function of labour:
Average Product (AP) is total product per unit of variableAverage Product (AP) is total product per unit of variable
inputinput
Marginal Product (MP) is the addition in total output perMarginal Product (MP) is the addition in total output per
unit change in variable inputunit change in variable input
),( KLfQ =
),( LKfTPL =
L
TP
APL =
L
TP
MPL
∆
∆
=
8. Labour
Total
Output
O
MPL
APL
Labour
Total
Output
O
TPL
A*
A
Stage I
B*
B
Stage II
C
C*
Stage III
First stage
Increasing Returns to
the Variable Factor
MP>0 and MP>AP
Second stage
Diminishing Returns to
a Variable Factor
MP>0 and MP<AP
Third Stage
Negative Returns
MP<0 while AP is falling
but positive
Technically inefficient
stage of production
A rational firm will never
operate in this stage
Law of Variable Proportions
9. Production Function with Two VariableProduction Function with Two Variable
InputsInputs
All inputs are variable in longAll inputs are variable in long
run and only two inputs arerun and only two inputs are
usedused
Firm has the opportunity toFirm has the opportunity to
select that combination of inputsselect that combination of inputs
which maximizes returnswhich maximizes returns
Curves showing suchCurves showing such
production function are calledproduction function are called
isoquantsisoquants oror iso-product curvesiso-product curves..
AnAn isoquantisoquant is the locus of allis the locus of all
technically efficienttechnically efficient
combinations of two inputs forcombinations of two inputs for
producing a given level ofproducing a given level of
outputoutput
108
912
818
728
640
Labour
(’00 units)
Capital (Rs.
crore)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
6 7 8 9 10
Labour ('00 units)
Capital(Rs.Crore)
10. Characteristics of Isoquants
Downward sloping
Convex to the origin
A higher isoquant represents a higher output
Two isoquants do not intersect
O Labour
Capital
Q0
B
Q1
A
C
Q2
B Q1
O
Labour
Capital
C
Q2
A
11. Marginal Rate of TechnicalMarginal Rate of Technical
SubstitutionSubstitution
Measures the reduction in one input, dueMeasures the reduction in one input, due
to unit increase in the other input that isto unit increase in the other input that is
just sufficient to maintain the same leveljust sufficient to maintain the same level
of outputof output..
It is also equal to the ratio of the marginalIt is also equal to the ratio of the marginal
product of one input to the marginalproduct of one input to the marginal
product of other inputproduct of other input
L
K
MRTSLK
∆
∆
−=
L
K
MP
MPMRTS K
L
LK
∆
∆
−==
12. Isocost LinesIsocost Lines
•The isocost line
represents the locus
of points of all the
different
combinations of two
inputs that a firm
can procure, given
the total cost and
prices of the inputs.
Total Cost is sum of Labour cost and Capital
cost
The (absolute) slope of this line is
equal to the ratio of the input prices.
B1
A1
B2
A2
Labour
Capital
O B
A
13. Producer’s EquilibriumProducer’s Equilibrium
Labour
Capital
O
A
B
Q2
Q3
Q0
Q1
C
E
L*
K*
D
Necessary condition for equilibrium
Slope of isoquant = Slope of
isocost line
Maximization of output subject to
cost constraint
AB is the isocost line
Any point below AB is feasible but not
desirable
E is the point of tangency of Q2 with
isocost line AB
Corresponds to the highest level of
output with given cost function.
Firm would employ L* and K* units of
labour and capital
Q3 is beyond reach of the firm
Points C and D are also on the same
isocost line, but they are on isoquant Q1,
which is lower to Q2. Hence show lower
output.
E is preferred to C and D, which is on
the highest feasible isoquant.
14. Producer’s EquilibriumProducer’s Equilibrium
B2
A2
B
A
B1
A1
L
K
O
Labour
Capital
Q
Minimization of cost for a given
level of output
Firm has decided the level output to be
produced shown by the isoquant Q
Will be indifferent between output
combinations shown by R, S, E on
isquant Q.
Has to ascertain that combination of
inputs Labour and Capital which
minimizes the cost of production
Hence a map of isocost lines will be
prepared
The isocost lines are parallel to each
other because price of the inputs is
given.
A1B1 line is not feasible
It will use OK and OL of capital and
labour respectively, at point E which is
also on AB, the lowest possible isocost
line.
R, S are not desirable because they are
on higher cost line A2 B2.
Necessary condition for equilibrium
Slope of isoquant = Slope of
isocost line
E
R
S
15. Expansion Path
E2
E1
Expansion Path
O
Labour
Capital
Line formed by joining the tangency points between various
isocost lines and the corresponding highest attainable isoquants
is known as Expansion Path.
For homogeneous production function and given factor prices
(and hence factor ratio):
expansion path is a straight line through the origin.
For non- homogeneous production function:
optimal expansion path is non linear.
16. Returns to ScaleReturns to Scale
Constant Returns to ScaleConstant Returns to Scale :: When aWhen a
proportional increase in all inputs yields an equalproportional increase in all inputs yields an equal
proportional increase in outputproportional increase in output
Increasing Returns to ScaleIncreasing Returns to Scale :: When aWhen a
proportional increase in all inputs yields a moreproportional increase in all inputs yields a more
than proportional increase in outputthan proportional increase in output
Decreasing Returns to ScaleDecreasing Returns to Scale :: When aWhen a
proportional increase in all inputs yields a lessproportional increase in all inputs yields a less
than proportional increase in outputthan proportional increase in output
Returns to Scale show the degree by which the level of
output changes in response to a given change in all the
inputs in a production system.
17. Technical ProgressTechnical Progress
Refers to research and development andRefers to research and development and
investments made to manage technicalinvestments made to manage technical
know howknow how
Technical change may beTechnical change may be
Embodied or investment specific,Embodied or investment specific, wherewhere
new capital is used in the productionnew capital is used in the production
apparatus, which requires investment toapparatus, which requires investment to
take place; ortake place; or
Disembodied or investment neutral,Disembodied or investment neutral,
wherewhere output increases without anyoutput increases without any
increase in investment but by anincrease in investment but by an
innovation through research andinnovation through research and
18. Technical ProgressTechnical Progress
Types of Technical Progress (Hicks)Types of Technical Progress (Hicks)
Neutral Technical Progress:Neutral Technical Progress: changeschanges
in the marginal product of labour (MPL)in the marginal product of labour (MPL)
and capital (MPK) are sameand capital (MPK) are same
Labour augmenting TechnicalLabour augmenting Technical
ProgressProgress: MPL increases faster than the: MPL increases faster than the
MPKMPK
Capital augmenting TechnicalCapital augmenting Technical
ProgressProgress : MPK increases faster than: MPK increases faster than
MPLMPL