12 donatus mathenge githui 86-102

Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol 2, No 3

Ethical Issues in Education and Training in Kenya: A Critical
Analysis of Teaching Methodology

Donatus Mathenge Githui (corresponding author)
School of Business, Kimathi University College of Technology
P O Box 657-10100, Nyeri -Kenya
E-mail: frdonatusmathenge@yahoo.com

Abstract

The main objective of this paper was to diagnose the ethical and moral issues in the teaching and training
modalities offered by higher learning institutions in tune with relevance to entrepreneurship among the
graduates in Kenya. The paper sought to explore the success of Vocational education training institutions in
Kenya in producing human capitals, with greater emphasis on teaching and training methods. Education is
judged on how well the trainees secure formal and informal employment. The paper employed ethical
theories such as Virtue ethics, Deontological ethics, Ethical learning and growth and Teleological ethics to
build its content. The research involved survey approach to get responses from 20 education and training
institutions 50 Lecturers and 200 students, 10 Leading managers and 30 government officers working in
different ministries and government agencies in Mt Kenya region. An analysis of the data was carried out
using principal component analysis. From the diagnosis of the study, it was found that ethics as a discipline
of critical thinking and learning has not been widely integrated in the current training and education system.
. It was found that students who undertake ethical and critical thinking are more productive because of the
high memory comprehension, retention and awareness of reality. From our recommendation, in order to
spur innovation and Invention among trainees in Kenya, so as to develop the spirit of entrepreneurship,
then ethical thinking and learning should be integrated in all the training and educational programmes. The
findings and recommendations indicated that the research objectives had been achieved.

Keywords: Education and Training, Entrepreneurship, Ethical Theories and values

1.0 Introduction

The need to ensure that the practice of training and learning within education and teaching systems is based
on sound ethical principles is not open to debate. Such principles as argued (Senge 1990 and Covey 1992)
are essential in order to ensure that teaching and training methodologies are appreciated and that the
integrity of the methodology used in producing graduates is beyond reproach. But what exactly are these
principles, where did they originate from, who should safeguard them, and how can they be policed? There
is growing concern within the field of educational training and teaching that contemporary approaches to
methodology subvert certain ethical principles and values, (Gichure1997; Oruka 2007) and, as a result,
bring the entire educational and training disciplines into disrepute. This paper attempts to call into action
the importance of ethics within the field of education and training. The ethical principles that we have
come to expect of teachers are reviewed and commented on, drawing from the current literature and
luminaries on this topic (Mugambi et al. 1989).
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Ethical theory contribution to this debate is reviewed in light of some of the contemporary approaches to
teaching methodology that are now in vogue within the field of education and training. The objective of this
paper is to reflect on the main issues, as the author perceives them, and to draw recommendations as to how
some of the more contemporary approaches to teaching methodology can coexist with the traditional
methodologies while at the same time ensuring that their techniques reflect the sound ethical standards that
will retain the integrity essential for their continued acceptance and intrinsic validity of the teaching and
training approaches.

1.1 Vocational education training Institutions

The arguments of, Njoroge & Benndars (1986) show that the competitiveness of any economy will depend
on continuing availability of personnel with modern technical skills and core competencies; with sound
industry-relevant qualifications; with business management competence; and effective innovation and
research linkages between business and education and training institutions in respect to ethical values and
critical thinking. This requires Vocational education training to make modern reforms with which success
would depend on the consistency of its financial, institutional and human resources capacities; the
contribution of social partners, particularly employers; and donor community readiness to provide technical
assistance as inferred by Waiguchu et al. (1999). Despite some positive changes in the vocational
educational training system development, there are a lot of complaints from the employers, almost all
ministries and government agencies, international donors as well as from students themselves about the low
quality of professional education and its governance. As a result, a vacuum has virtually been created in
training for all workers professional qualifications. Vocational institutions include: low level colleges,
middle level colleges and higher learning institutions.

The most typical ethical issues of the vocational educational training system are as follows:

i. Theoretical teaching still prevails based on examination and grade scores; practices and internships are
either formal or incomplete, due to the lack of cooperation with employers. This according to ethical
learning and growth limits the creativity and innovation as well as productivity of the graduates.

ii. There is a gap between the university systems outcomes and the market demands. As a result,
unemployment rate among youth with higher education is 38%. The culturally imbedded appeal choices.

iii. Despite of the on-going vocational educational training reform, the system does not have mechanisms to
monitor quality of outcomes, the transition of graduates into the labor market. Coherent policies on
institutional provision, norms and measures for quality assurance are not developed yet.

iv. The vocational educational training material base (equipment and facilities, laboratories and libraries,
textbooks and methodological materials), teaching methods, and curricula are though provided but not
adequate enough.

v. Responsibilities for managing vocational educational training institutions are scattered among different
ministries and agencies. Functions on policy and strategy development, approval and implementation,
monitoring the outcomes, quality assurance and technical support services are not clearly identified.

vi. Though importance of partnerships of vocational educational training institutions and employers is
widely recognized, practical examples of such effective collaboration are though available, are limited due
to lack of cooperation between the concerned parties.

These are few problems that my paper has highlighted and termed as weakness of the education and
training programs offered by vocational educational training institutions. The above problems can only be
solved if all the stakeholders would employ ethical values that transcend across societal progression as

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argued by Nyerere (1968). To be ethical, our education and training should develop a purely African
education and training system which is independent of western interference and overshadowing. The basic
concepts in education as presented above have not been properly developed as well as received adequate
attention in African education literature (Mugambi et al. 1989). The influences of colonialism and western
education, theories and practices have a telling effect on their development in Africa. The extant
knowledge of education practices and activities in Africa were not allowed to evolve and develop as
indigenous African educational theories and practices. Waiguchu et al. (1999) noted that, the African
educational system has also come under the heavy influence of colonialism. Across the continent, African
business schools and other faculties in the universities and other tertiary institutions have not found it
expedient to completely review the colonial curricular, several years after independence. The
preponderance of foreign course contents, literature, models, principles, theories, etc have not in any way
helped in the development of indigenous African management theories and management practices. That is
why according to Waiguchu et al. (1999) we should develop our own African education system.

1.1.1 Problem Statement

The relevance and reliability of an educational system is evaluated based on the quality of products that
comes out after successive training as formally inferred by Senge (1990) on ethical The preponderance of
foreign course contents, literature, models, principles, theories, etc have not in any way helped in the
development of indigenous African management theories and management practices.

My research therefore, sought to find out if learning and training institutions were ethically and morally
inclined towards producing full baked graduates that can not only become enslaved in formal employment,
but can also break this modern slavery and create jobs through entrepreneurship education acquired in
apprenticeship.

1.1.2 Research Objectives

1.1.2.1 General objective

The general objective was to critically establish the ethical and moral issues in the teaching and training
modalities offered by higher learning institutions in tune with relevance to employability and
entrepreneurship among the graduates in Kenya.

1.1. 2.2 Specific objectives

i. To identify the status, problems and the needs of education and training institutions in strengthening
their role in advancing the youth employment through partnership with enterprise institutions.

ii. To investigate how the teaching and training modalities contribute to entrepreneurial activities
among their graduates and how these institutions improve the fit between professional qualification
demand and supply.

To establish some academic ethics that should be adopted by educational and training institutions towards
producing an all round professionals who do not become job seekers but job creators

1.1.3 Justification and significance of the paper

With respect to relevance, this paper will help define at least if not all changes that need to be instigated
into the training programs offered by higher learning institutions so as to produce reliable and self-
regulated responsible graduates. The results should have some interesting implications for educators and
trainers as well as Government ministries and other employers in Kenya. Students will also find this paper
relevance especially with regard to academic integrity and honesty in achieving highest level of
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professionalism. The government will find it relevant to adopt the recommendations of this paper towards
directing educators and trainers to develop programs that can improve the economic performance of the
country.

1.1.4 Hypothesis Formulation

Ha: Good and well structured quality educational and training methodology will have a positive impact on
the economic development through production of readily utilizable human capital by corporate world.

Hb: Industrial oriented and collaborative learning can help spur academic arenas towards designing and
developing educational and training programs that are industry based.

Hc: Encouraging academic researches and innovations among learners will have positive outcomes and
generate a pool of competent entrepreneurs in the country.

Hd: Ethical integration into learning modules will result into production of highly effective, reliable and
acceptable in the labor markets.

He: Relevant education and training programs will be a new dynamic learning practice that can produce
independent employees as opposed to grade based cramming programs.

1.2 Learning and Teaching Methodology

Student learning in higher education is a function of both formal and informal experiences. Formal learning
takes place as a result of a classroom or related activity structured by a teacher and/or others for the purpose
of helping students to achieve specified cognitive, or other, objectives. Informal learning encompasses all
the other outcomes of students' participation in a higher education experience that is largely gained outside
the lecture or classroom.

1.2.1 The Theory behind the Practice

Various models on learning and teaching modalities have been developed and adopted by a number of
scholars. Skinner (1953) developed behaviorist model that considered stimuli such as instructional events
or activities, the responses of learners to these stimuli, and contingencies or consequences based on those
responses. Mager (1962) work with instructional objectives (precise statements of intended behaviors
along with measurement criteria) and Bloom et al. (1956) taxonomies (classification schemes) of objectives
were also major influences on the ways in which instruction was designed and delivered. The taxonomic
levels are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

1.2.1.1 Cognitive theory

Essentially the position that learning involves the learner's associations of new stimuli with existing
concepts and categorization schemes regained some support in the 1970s and has continued to develop in
its applications since that time. Svinicki (1999) outlined five general strategies for teaching that derive from
the early theory: (1) directing students' attention through verbal or visual cues; (2) emphasizing how
material is organized, again with various cues; (3) making information more meaningful by providing
associations with other material or applications; (4) encouraging active checking of understanding through
questioning and feedback; and (5) compensating for limits of information processing and memory systems
with smaller amounts of information, review, breaks, and focusing attention.

Svinicki (1999) suggests that instructors should model and describe their own thinking as they work
through problems, stress problem solving and other activities that provide opportunities for practicing
thought processes, and even teach specific strategies when necessary.
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On the other hand, Keller (1983) the teacher, as the expert in a specific field, becomes a cognitive mentor
and uses such techniques to help students move from positions as novices in the discipline to more
seasoned practitioners. Teachers thus provide students with tools for understanding and dealing with future,
more complex material. Since efficient problem-solving strategies enhance performance, the additional
benefit is motivational: it increases students' expectations for successful completion of the work and
strengthens their beliefs about their ability to do the work.

1.2.1.2 Learner-centered instruction

This is a term that refers to attending to a learner's individual needs, differences, and abilities, as well as to
sharing responsibility for learning. Pintrich (1995) has confirmed that students who are able to control their
own behavior, motivation, and cognition are generally successful in college. Such students self-regulate
their learning in three ways. First, they exercise active control by monitoring what they do, why they do it,
and what happens–and then making adjustments. Second, they have goals that mark desired performance
levels and they use these when deciding what adjustments to make. Third, they accept that the control must
be theirs rather than someone else's.

1.2.1.3 Collaborative learning

This is the practice of actively engaging learners in joint discovery, analysis, and use of information. It has
its roots in the power of peer and other groups to influence the development of understandings, values, and
beliefs. From a pragmatic perspective, collaborative learning is also a more representative model of
contemporary practice in the working world. Students are not expected to teach each other, they are
expected to work together to reach appropriate goals. The value of self-regulated learning is apparent in this
context. Well-constructed collaborative work identifies learner responsibilities, sets goals, provides learners
with opportunities to consider the goals and to structure their own efforts accordingly, and supports
cooperative effort. Svinicki, (1999), proposes the following methods for promoting learner-centered
instruction: (i) encourage self-regulation; (ii) use collaborative methods; (iii) employ problem-solving
activities that connect content to real-world situations; and (iv) provide models of the processes, strategies,
and habits of thought of the discipline being taught.

1.2.2 Teaching and Its Outcomes

For verbal, quantitative, and subject-matter learning, lecturing appears to be a valuable method, particularly
in learning material at the knowledge and comprehension levels of the Bloom et al. (1956) taxonomy.
Individualized instruction in various forms seems reasonably effective in teaching similar content. More
sophisticated cognitive objectives and affective objectives appear better learned when opportunities for
interaction occur, as in smaller classes and those that use discussion and active learning methods.

Collaborative learning also provides learners with numerous alternative explanations that must be
reconciled, and efforts in this direction support achievement of both complex cognitive and affective
objectives for learning content material. When general cognitive skills and intellectual growth are desired, a
process involving exploration of information, developing explanations, and reaching generalizations is
useful. Like the experiential model of David Kolb (1984), this process is reiterative and its strength is in the
need for learners to go beyond memorization of facts and into solving problems through locating relevant
information, testing possible theories, and arriving at conclusions.

Chickering & Gamson (1987) suggested that instruction that encourages social and academic interaction,
cooperative efforts, active learning, and regular feedback, high expectations about both student effort and
outcomes, and the creation of respect and trust among individuals and groups are all critical to success.
Teachers and lecturers can do much to support the kinds of growth that have been found in the external
psychosocial area. The use of cooperative and collaborative methods of teaching and learning supports the
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development of social skills and team membership skills, and also exposes students to a variety of opinions
and ideas. Teachers can present diverse points of view and engage students in exploration, analysis, and
synthesis of these views.

Insofar as moral development is concerned, attending college appears to consistently promote growth in the
direction of principled moral reasoning. This growth takes place primarily in the early years of college and
it is reflected in both in-college and post graduation behavior.

Pascarella & Terenzi (1991) infer that, use of the discussion method, collaborative learning, peer review,
and other techniques that require students to consider alternative points of view and to reconcile differences
among these alternatives, can lead to more openness to new ideas, more cultural sensitivity, and more
awareness of social/ethical issues. Such techniques can be used in many disciplines and are not limited to
particular courses dealing with moral reasoning, ethics, and related subjects. In these or other courses,
exposing students to real-world ethical issues and requiring them to propose alternative solutions to
problems using the perspectives of the various stakeholders is one way to demonstrate the complexities of
making such decisions. Such an approach can also help expand the students' range of understanding of
differing points of view.

1.2.3 The Role of Lecturers and Teachers in Motivation

Motivation is a well-researched area, and though there are several descriptions of the elements of
motivation, these elements are quite similar. Theall (1998) distillation of thirteen motivational approaches
resulted in a six-item conceptualization that applies to higher education students and faculty. The elements
were: inclusion, attitude, meaning, competence, leadership, and satisfaction.

Keller (1983) proposed a model for the motivational design of instruction. The model outlines a cycle of
inputs, events, and consequences that could result in positive or negative outcomes. Students and teachers
enter into a teaching-learning situation with sets of values and expectations that affect the extent and nature
of the effort they expend. Positive attitudes (e.g., the student is interested in the subject; the teacher has
done research on the topic) and expectations (e.g., the students believe themselves to be able in the content
area; the teacher expects the course to be well received) lead to greater effort, and effort directly affects
performance. Strong performance leads to both satisfaction (via the consequences of good grades, the sense
of a "job well done" and the recognition of effective learning) and heightened value and expectations for
the future (which further motivate effort).

1.2.4 Determining Outcomes

The growth of both evaluation and assessment has been exponential, and with this growth has come
expectations that teachers and institutions will be able to document their performance, and that of their
students, in meaningful ways. Classroom tests are no longer sufficient as evidence. Certification and
licensure are important in certain professional fields, but many disciplines do not require such standardized
demonstrations of learning, and many have questioned even these more carefully constructed measures in
terms of their ability to truly describe learning. Assessment has become a process for continuous revision
and improvement. Assessment is concerned with the results of teaching and the educational experience, and
of determining as precisely as possible what was learned. This role differs from that of evaluation, which is
more a process to determine merit or worth.

Evaluation is a more global, formal, quantitative, and occasional process, while assessment is often narrow,
informal, qualitative, and ongoing. This is because assessment's objectives are often at the level of the
individual learner and less amenable to social science research methods that depend on samples of adequate
size to allow statistical inference. Interestingly, both evaluation and assessment use the terms formative,
meaning a process for exploration, revision, and improvement; and summative, meaning a process for
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determining merit and making administrative decisions about people or programs. Steadman & Cross
(1996) proposed learner-centered, teacher-directed, collaborative, context-specific, scholarly,
practical/relevant, and continual.

The above literature reviews though very essential it falls short of ethical and moral considerations in the
teaching and educational programmes. Ethics is essential in our life as we have to make choices between
and among competing values. This is what distinguishes ethics as a theory of decision making from other
disciplines. Value judgments are dependent on beliefs and experiences in everyday life (May 2001). They
also concern what we would like our experience to be’ (May, 2001: 49). Ethics are, in essence, rules for
making rules of conduct and action. That is, ethics are not codified in laws or nursery rhymes; they are
principles and civic virtues that guide how we will choose between and among different values (Weiss
2006). Oruka (2007) claimed that if a moral agent does something good, he or she is praiseworthy, and if a
bad action is chosen, then the moral agent is blameworthy. Ethics therefore give us flexibility, with limits.
To be effective, therefore, ethics must have a value based on a rational understanding of the teaching
methods and practices, in education and training. A more comprehensive understanding of this treatise of
ethical application in education and training is given in section of ethical perspective.

1.2.5 Operational Framework of the research variables

The research variables were classified into one broad variable based on teaching and training approaches as
shown in figure 1 of the notes.

Other specific variables included;

i. How relevant is current education and training programmes to society requirement and country
development.
ii. How reliable are the trainees with respect to matters affecting society and their overall performance
in the world of work.
iii. How is the quality of the current education and training approaches to job markets and overall
solving of problems facing the society and Kenya in particular?
iv. How industrial oriented is the current training and education program?
v. Can the graduates meet the expectations of the labour market, based on the outcomes of their
training and knowledge acquisition

1.3 Research methodology and Design

1.3.1 Instrument and Instrumentation
The survey instrument was pre-tested on groups of 20 educational and training institutions in Mt Kenya
Region, 22 government ministries in the region and 10 service and manufacturing firms operating in the
region. Ambiguous questions were deleted or reworded for clarity. Demographic items included top
administrators in educational and training institutions, employees, students and managers from the selected
service and manufacturing firms as well as government officials in Mk Kenya Region. Five hundred
questionnaires were hand delivered to a cross section of top educational heads, managers, government
officials as well as employees and higher learning students from the accredited institutions in Mt Kenya
region. A total of 492 questionnaires were returned, netting a response rate of 97.2 percent. An attempt was
made to include all the participants in the sample, and all of the returned questionnaires were usable in the
final data analysis.
Quantitative data is analyzed by using descriptive statistics and other standard quantitative methods, which
included Principal component analysis (PCA) and the Chi-square. Data collected from the survey was
entered into the statistical package, SPSS (statistical package for social science) for analysis, discussion and
presentation of the results in this research. To analyze the demographic information, the descriptive
statistics are entered onto a Microsoft Excel sheet.
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1.3.2 Findings and Results

From the responses of the demographics, the following results were established. Based on the results of the
principal component analysis and multivariate analysis from the chi-square, a variance of 56% was deduced
from the relevancy of the education and training programs to the needs of the society as responded to by
leading managers and government officials. Quality as a dynamic variable scored 43% as it was noted that
graduates could not readily secure formal jobs and could not further create their own jobs. It was therefore
established that quality was a subject to be focused on by educators and trainers.

Based on the outcomes and industrial orientation, each scored 40% as responded to by the employers when
assessing the performance of fresh graduates from colleges.

The reliability of the current educational and training programs was after analysis by the principal
component analysis found to score 45% variance. This proved the fact though there are a good number of
graduates from various learning institutions; most of them cannot be relied on by world of work because of
their limited skills and experience.

1.4: An Ethical Perspective of the Research

Though a number of concerns have been discussed in the literature review section, they fall short ethical
theories and values as the key pillars that can help redefine and reinvent the whole system of current
education and training programmes. Ethics though is taught as a discipline, it has its birth from the society’s
expectations and actions of the members that constitute that society. Hence no discipline can prove to be
superior over others since the society is multifaceted with all the disciplines currently being administered in
the current training and educational programmes.

Gichure (1997) defines ethics as ‘the systematic study of human actions from the point of view of their
rightness or wrongness as a means for the achievement of man’s ultimate happiness’. Weiss (2006, p. 18)
inferred that good business means good ethics, similarly a good education means good ethics. Being moral
agents, our actions are true picture of the society, and therefore any consequence or outcomes of the
education and training on the society will be judged from ethical and moral standpoint.

We are all guided by ethical values which according to Gichure (2007) are; trustworthiness, honesty,
integrity, reliability, loyalty, truthfulness, respect, caring, responsibility, accountability, transparency,
diligence, perseverance, self-restraint, fairness, citizenship. This is what the current teaching methodology
and practices should focus on if our society is to be restructured so as to become a better place for human
existence.

1.4.1 Ethical Theory

Ethical theories are tools for ethical thinking that you can use in analyzing the range of ethics that can
affect learning and training, organizations management and individuals’ growth and intellectual
nourishment as claimed by Senge (1990). Our current learning is too theoretical where learners only read
notes given by their teachers, and/or cram these notes to attain good grades while their intellectual growth
and stimulation is not set. This is largely leading to intellectual dwarfishness in the graduates. To change
this dwarfishness, a number of ethical theories can be adopted by teachers and learners. These theories
include; virtue ethics, ethical learning and growth, Deontological ethics and Teleological ethics.

1.4.1.1 Virtue ethics

Aristotle was the proponent for virtue ethics in our daily ventures and undertakings. It is a stable quality in
man; an internal principle or a habit. Plato, Aristotle’s teacher had identified four virtues, those of wisdom,
courage, self control and justice. When we say that a person is just, honest or prudent, we mean that in this
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particular person, there is stable quality of justice, reliability, trustworthiness, honesty or prudence (Gichure
1997). Fisher & Lovell (2009) infers that virtues are not the ‘ends’ rather they are the ‘means’. They are
personal qualities that provide the basis for individual to lead a good, noble or happy life (Debeljuh 2006).

1.4.1.2 Deontological ethics

This theory as argued by Fisher & Lovell, (2009), was developed by Kant. Kant’s philosophy was that
actions must be guided by universalisable principles that apply irrespective of the consequences of the
actions. An action can only be morally right if it is carried out as a duty, Kant’s categorical imperative lays
emphasis that one does ‘duty for duty’s sake.’ not in expectation of a reward (Gichure 1997). Bowie (1999)
in his organization, built upon Kantian principles, which provided a theory of moral permissibility for
interactions. Interactions that violate the universability formulation of the categorical imperative are
morally impermissible.

1.4.1.3 Ethical Learning and Growth

An ethical organization cannot be achieved by a decree, (Weiss, 2006). The end has to be approached
obliquely by encouraging process of learning that enable people to decide for themselves to act ethically.
For Senge (1990, p. 13-14) learning is not simply an acquisition of useful information; it is simply a
personal moral development. Covey (1992, p. 36) adopted the ‘principle of process’ of personal growth in
the spheres of emotion, human relationships and character formation. These processes cannot, he argued, be
short circuited; people have to go through the necessary stages of development to achieve greater
effectiveness.

1.4.1.4 Teleological ethics

According to Fisher & Lovell (2009), Teleological ethics means the rightness or goodness of an action is
not intrinsic to that action but can only be judged by its consequences. They relied on the views of the
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, the initial proponents of this theory. The theory tends to combine an
intention to work towards an end with a particular view of what institutions are necessary to achieve it.
These institutions govern the way in which the appropriateness of an act to an end should be evaluated.

A summary of the ethical theories has been attached in figure 2 of the notes section.

1.5. Discussion and Recommendations

From the research development model, a number of findings were found out. These were termed as model
variables which were used in the discussion of the findings.

From the responses of employers and students, the current teaching methodology and system is too
theoretical. This is rather falling short of ethical and moral considerations that learning institutions are
expected to impart in the learners. Nobody ever learns from class work, rather people learn through
practice, and this leads to competency and high performance. Some students cited out in the questionnaires
that urgent reforms was imperative in the current education and training systems, with greater emphasis
being given towards developing practical skills that will help them in future should they fail to secure
formal employment. Employers from both public and private sectors cited out that most of their employees
are not employable upon graduation due to lack of practical skills and experiences. These according to
them are caused by current education and training systems, where learners get more theoretical orientation
as opposed to industrial requirement and orientation. This has created intellectual dwarfishness, where
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ethical thinking and theory application is overlooked. Thus the current training and education program is
not industrial oriented.

Educational and training top heads reported that though modern learning skills had been employed in the
current training programs, their trainees still need to acquire practical skills from the corporate world. This
is what they claimed failed them from designing programs that are consisted with what labour markets
require. To be ethical enough, educators and trainers should find amicable ways of partnering with the
labour markets to ensure that their trainees are in tune with industrial requirements and demands.
According to Teleological theory focuses on the consequences of an action, which in education and training
could relate to competence and performance of the graduates as opposed to grade acquisition.

The government agencies and other employers claimed that most young employees lacked the relevant
marketable and employable core competencies despite having attained highest grades in their coursework.

It was also noted from the responses that it was very clear that most young people who completed their
training did not have the necessary proficiency to start their own self employment. The outcomes of
education and training should be evaluated and assessed based on how the graduates create their own jobs
through entrepreneurship skills and experience.

In order to have an economy that is thriving towards highest levels of economic status, then moral and
ethical thinking, aided by ethical theories of intellectual nourishment, should play a larger role in guiding
and sharpening the thoughts and reasoning of young educated members of the society. Any system of
learning that fails to bring out the potential worth of the young then will be considered unethical and
therefore under standard.

1.5.1: Recommendations

From the diagnosis of our research based on the general and specific objectives, with responses from
employers, Government officials, constructs of the research, such as reliability, relevance, outcomes,
quality and industrial oriented and the importance ethical perspective in education and training , the study
has led to the following recommendations.

Recommendation 1: Qualitative evaluation

Senge (1990) cited that learning and education can be ethically and morally judged not on the basis of
quantity production, but on the basis of quality production. This is the holding of ethical learning and
growth. Thus based on this ethical theory, higher learning institutions ought to consider the following.

(a) Quality in higher education is a multidimensional concept, which should embrace all its functions, and
activities: teaching and academic programmes, research and scholarship, staffing, students, buildings,
facilities, equipment, services to the community and the academic environment. Internal self-evaluation and
external review, conducted openly by independent specialists, if possible with international expertise, are
vital for enhancing quality. Independent national bodies should be established and comparative standards of
quality, recognized at international level, should be defined. Due attention should be paid to specific
institutional and national contexts in order to take into account diversity and to avoid uniformity.
Stakeholders should be an integral part of the institutional evaluation process.

(b) Quality also requires that higher education should be characterized by its learning dimension: exchange
of knowledge, interactive networking, mobility of teachers and students, and research projects, while taking
into account the national cultural and ethical values, and circumstances.

(c) To attain and sustain national, quality, certain components are particularly relevant, notably careful
selection of staff and continuous staff development, in particular through the promotion of appropriate
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programmes for academic staff development, including teaching/learning methodology and mobility,
between higher education institutions, and between higher education institutions and the world of work, as
well as student mobility within and between countries. The new information technologies are an important
tool in this process, owing to their impact on the acquisition of knowledge and know-how.

Recommendation 2: Innovative educational approaches: critical thinking and creativity

According to Fisher & Lovell (2009), Teleological ethics means the rightness or goodness of an action is
not intrinsic to that action but can only be judged by its consequences as proposed by Jeremy Bentham
and John Stuart Mill. The theory tends to combine an intention to work towards an end with a particular
view of what institutions are necessary to achieve it. In relation to this theory, higher learning institutions
should;

(a) In a world undergoing rapid changes, there is a perceived need for a new vision and paradigm of higher
education, which should be student-oriented, calling in most education and training institutions for in-depth
reforms and an open access policy so as to cater for ever more diversified categories of people, and of its
contents, methods, practices and means of delivery, based on new types of links and partnerships with the
community and with the broadest sectors of society.

(b) Higher education institutions should educate students to become moral and ethically integrated, well
informed and deeply motivated citizens, who can think critically, analyze problems of society, look for
solutions to the problems of society, apply them and accept social responsibilities.

(c) To achieve these goals, it may be necessary to recast curricula, using new and appropriate methods, so
as to go beyond cognitive mastery of disciplines by adopting ethical thinking and growth. New pedagogical
and didactical approaches should be accessible and promoted in order to facilitate the acquisition of skills,
competences and abilities for communication, creative and critical analysis, independent ethical and critical
thinking and team work in multicultural contexts, where creativity also involves combining traditional or
local knowledge and know-how with advanced science and technology. Academic personnel should play a
significant role in determining the curriculum.

(d) New methods of education will also imply new types of teaching-learning materials, creativity, spurred
by ethical and critical thinking. These have to be coupled with new methods of testing that will promote not
only powers of memory, that is acquired through class work but also powers of comprehension, skills for
practical work and creativity.

Recommendation 3: Higher education personnel and students as major actors

According to Kant’s Deontological theory, one does duty for duty’s sake and not in expectation of a
reward. This theory therefore could help propose the following changes in education and training.

(a) A vigorous policy of staff development is an essential element for higher education institutions. Clear
policies should be established concerning higher education teachers, who nowadays need to focus on
teaching students how to learn and how to take initiatives rather than being exclusively founts of
knowledge. Adequate provision should be made for research and for updating and improving pedagogical
skills, through appropriate staff development programmes, encouraging constant innovation in curriculum,
teaching and learning methods, and ensuring appropriate professional and financial status, and for
excellence in research and teaching, coupled with ethical theories of thinking and values. To this end, more
importance should be attached to national experience. Furthermore, in view of the role of higher education
for lifelong learning, experience outside the institutions ought to be considered as a relevant qualification
for higher educational staff, explained by teleological theory of ethics which focuses on the consequences
of an action like education and training.

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(b) Clear policies should be established by all higher education institutions preparing teachers of early
childhood education and for primary and secondary schools, providing stimulus for constant innovation in
curriculum, best practices in teaching methods and familiarity with diverse learning styles, which touches
critical areas of ethical thinking and value system. It is vital to have appropriately trained administrative
and technical personnel.

(c) National and institutional decision-makers should place students and their needs at the centre of their
concerns, and should consider them as major partners and responsible stakeholders in the renewal of higher
education. This, according to ethical learning and growth, learning is not a classroom collection rather
practice acquisition, include student involvement in issues that affect that level of education, in evaluation,
the renovation of teaching methods and curricula and, in the institutional framework in force, in policy-
formulation and institutional management. As students have the right to organize and represent themselves,
students’ involvement in these issues should be guaranteed.

(d) To have a system guided by ethical values and theories, guidance and counseling services should be
developed, in co-operation with student organizations, in order to assist students in the transition to higher
education at whatever age and to take account of the needs of ever more diversified categories of learners.
Apart from those entering higher education from schools or further education colleges, they should also
take account of the needs of those leaving and returning in a lifelong process since learning is a continuous
and critical thinking does not cease after training. Such support is important in ensuring a good match
between student and course, reducing drop-out. Students who do drop out should have suitable
opportunities to return to higher education if and when appropriate.

Recommendation 4: Strengthening co-operation with the world of work and analyzing and anticipating
societal needs

Covey, (1992; 36) adopted the ‘principle of process’ of ethical learning and growth, of personal growth in
the spheres of emotion, human relationships and character formation. These processes cannot, he argued, be
short circuited; people have to go through the necessary stages of development to achieve greater
effectiveness. This cannot be achieved in classroom, rather through practical acquisition from the world of
work. Thus according to this ethical theory, learning institutions should;

(a) In economies characterized by changes and the emergence of new production paradigms based on
knowledge and its application, and on the handling of information, the links between higher education, the
corporate world of work and other parts of society should be strengthened and renewed. This will help
learners to acquire wisdom and other professional values as developed in the virtue ethics.

(b) Links with the corporate world of work can be strengthened, through the participation of its
representatives in the governance of institutions, the increased use of domestic and national
apprenticeship/work-study opportunities for students and teachers, the exchange of personnel between the
world of work and higher education institutions and revised curricula more closely aligned with working
practices coupled with ethical values and thinking.

(c) As a lifelong source of professional training, ethical theories and values could help in updating and
recycling institutions of higher education as they systematically take into account trends in the world of
work and in the scientific, technological and economic sectors. In order to respond to the work
requirements, higher education systems and the world of work should jointly develop and assess learning
processes, bridging programmes and prior learning assessment and recognition programmes, which
integrate theory and training on the job.

(d) Developing entrepreneurial skills and initiative aided by ethical thinking should become major concerns
of higher education, in order to facilitate employability of graduates who will increasingly be called upon to
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be not only job seekers but also and above all to become job creators. Higher education institutions should
give the opportunity to students to fully develop their own abilities with a sense of social responsibility,
educating them to become full participants in democratic society and promoters of changes that will foster
equity and justice, where they will be solely aware of what society expects of them.

Recommendation 5: Long-term orientation based on relevance

Senge (1990) used ethical learning and growth to make changes in modes of orientation offered by
institutions which could be adopted by education and training institutions.

(a) Relevance in higher education should be assessed in terms of the fit between what society expects of
institutions and what they do. This requires ethical standards, political impartiality, critical capacities and,
at the same time, a better articulation with the problems of society and the world of work, basing long-term
orientations on societal aims and needs, including respect for cultures and environmental protection. The
concern is to provide access to both broad general education and targeted, career-specific education, often
interdisciplinary, focusing on skills and aptitudes as well as ethical values and virtues, both of which equip
individuals to live in a variety of changing settings, and to be able to change occupations.

(b) Higher education should reinforce its role of service to society, especially its activities aimed at
eliminating poverty, intolerance, violence, illiteracy, hunger, environmental degradation and disease,
mainly through an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach in the analysis of problems and issues.

(c) Higher education should enhance its contribution to the development of the whole education system,
notably through improved teacher education, curriculum development and educational research, which
should have a fair interplay with ethical considerations, like creativity and innovation.

(d) Ultimately, higher education should aim at the creation of a new society - non-violent and non-
exploitative - consisting of highly cultivated, motivated and morally integrated individuals, inspired by love
for humanity and guided by wisdom, as explained by Plato and Aristotle theory of Virtue ethics.

Recommendation 6: Enhancing ethical role, autonomy, responsibility and anticipatory function

Higher education institutions and their personnel and students should:

(a) Preserve and develop their crucial functions, through the exercise of ethics and scientific and intellectual
rigor in their various activities;

(b) Be able to speak out on ethical, cultural and social problems completely independently and in full
awareness of their responsibilities, exercising a kind of intellectual authority that society needs to help it to
reflect, understand and act e.g. through observance of academic ethics and integrity as it has been reported
that cases of student cheating in exams have increased tremendously in the last 2 decades and this might
affect their performance in the job market. Employers might not trust these graduates because of these acts
of academic dishonesty and may as a result shun them completely.

(c) Enhance their critical and forward-looking functions, through continuing analysis of emerging social,
economic, cultural and political trends, providing a focus for forecasting, warning and prevention;

(d) Exercise their intellectual capacity and their moral and ethical prestige to defend and actively
disseminate universally accepted values, including peace, justice, freedom, equality and solidarity that have
been proposed by virtue ethics on essential values;

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(e) Enjoy full academic autonomy and freedom, conceived as a set of rights and duties, while being fully
responsible and accountable to society as suggested by ethical values;

(f) Play a role in helping identify and address issues that affect the well-being of communities, nations and
global society. This recommendation is supported by deontological and teleological theories.

Recommendation 7: Adopting ethical discipline in all areas of Training and Education.

No course is superior over the other. Thus there is need to restructure the current education and teaching
curricula to include ethics. Higher learning institutions should:

(a) Include Philosophical ethicists and esteemed theologians from churches, in the course of developing
their curricula, to help restructure and reinvent the whole system to a new face where learners can be taken
through progressive phases of ethical thinking and orientation as they pursue their careers. This should cut
across all the training programs offered by higher learning institutions, and can be enhanced by establishing
a centre of ethics in an institution where all trainees are required to take a course in ethics. This will not
only involve students undergoing training but also professionals and employees in the labour market, who
might be required by their institutions to take such courses. This is the holding of ethical learning and
growth.

(b) Virtue theory, which is one of the oldest normative traditions in Western Philosophy, has its roots in
ancient Greek civilization. Plato and Aristotle emphasized four virtues in particular, which were later called
cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. Other important virtues are fortitude, generosity,
self-respect, good temper, and sincerity. Virtue theory emphasizes moral and ethical education since
virtuous character traits are developed in one's youth especially if they are undergoing training and
orientation in life performance. Teachers who substitute parents when passing societal expectations on the
youth and as adults therefore, are responsible for instilling virtues in the young while teaching and training.
Individual ethics can only be understood when they are juxtaposed with the society within which they are
practiced. Therefore by extraction we can deduce that individual ethical behavior is far more likely to
flourish within a just and equitable society. It might be argued that in order to lead an ethical life one must
work to build a just society, which forms our values even as we shape its structures. This is the hallmark of
holistic success in sectors of life.

1.5.2 Conclusion

In order to achieve an edge in academic arena, then it would be very ethical that learning institutions be
reformed and be aligned towards solving the challenges that face our society. The teaching and training
modalities should equip learners with current, modern practical skills that can facilitate immediate solutions
to these challenges. This should minimize the high rate of theoretical orientation an indeed employ
collaborative, learner based practical learning. To achieve quality in these higher education training
programmes, then teachers and lecturers should employ ethical and critical thinking while leading a
motivational role to spur innovation and research among the learners. The above recommendations prove to
have achieved the objectives of the research.

More specifically and above all is the direct linkage with world of work, where learners can be able to
acquire industrial perquisites so as to become more employable and also create their own jobs as
entrepreneurs.

1.5.4: Research limitations

The main focus of the research model is about four factors from, namely; relevance, reliability, outcomes
industrial orientation as well as exploring their relationship with teaching and training approaches. The

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results are discussed from a Kenyan perspective.

The survey was only completed by leading managers, government official’s students and employers from
Mt. Kenya region. The results may only reflect this sample as an entire Kenyan representation but not
generally applicable to other countries.

1.5.5: Future Work

Since the paper focused only on the ethical issues in education and training in Kenya, future researches may
carry out an extensive research on Academic integrity and ethics. This still remains to be a serious
challenge to educators and employers since the graduates who seem to have excelled in class work cannot
be able to perform in the job market and cannot therefore create their own jobs as graduated entrepreneurs.

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Notes

Note 1: Operational Framework of the Research Variables

Fig 1: Showing the operational framework of the Research variables

Relevance

Quality Outcomes

Teaching and Training
APPROACHES

Reliability Industrial oriented

Sources: Kolb (1984) learning and Experiential Model

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Note 2: Fig 2: Summary of the ethical theories

Source: Fisher & Lovell (2009)
Individual Processes
Adaptability & responsiveness

1. Virtue ethics 4. Ethical Learning & growth
Individual growth-Covey & Senge
Plato and Aristotle The Trend of Economic Development
Figure 1.
Other adherence of the theory for the aboveCommunitarianism-Etzioni
Description figure.
McIntyre, Gilligan Ethical egoism-Rand

Policy
Principle Doing good
Doing right 2. Deontological Ethics 3. Teleological ethics
Immanuel Kant and his theory if Jeremy Bentham & John.Straut. Mill
categorical imperatives Discourse ethics
Rights/duties/responsibilities Utilitarianism
Justice as fairness-John Rawls

Institutional Structure
Fixity and Consistency

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