food

1. Micronutrients
• Micronutrients are vitamins, minerals, and trace elements
• Micronutrients are only required in minimal amounts, critical to energy
metabolism, cellular growth and differentiation, organ function, and immune
function.
• Micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) are so named because the daily intake
requirements for these nutrients are low. As they cannot be endogenously produced
in sufficient amounts, adequate intake through diet is of great importance.
Micronutrients do not provide energy, and therefore they do not play any role in
fattening or weight-gaining processes.
• Absorption occurs in the small intestine, along with other compounds.
Absorption in the small intestine may be impeded due to reactivity, limited
solubility or lack of stability of the micronutrients. For example, the anti-
nutritional factor, phytate (phytic acid) inhibits the absorption of iron and zinc,
possibly attributing to worldwide prevalence in deficiencies for both minerals

2. • Water-soluble vitamins
• are vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and 8 members of the vitamin B
complex: biotin, folate, niacin, pantothenic acid, riboflavin (vitamin
B2), thiamin (vitamin B1), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), and vitamin
B12 (cobalamin).
• Fat-soluble vitaminsare
vitamins A (retinol), D (cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol), E (alpha-
tocopherol), and K (phylloquinone and menaquinone).
• Only vitamins A, E, and B12 are stored to any significant extent in the body;
the other vitamins must be consumed regularly to maintain tissue health.
• Vitamins exert a large number of different functions in human body, such as
acting as coenzymes in several metabolic reactions, hormonal function, calcium
metabolism, antioxidants, coagulation, and structuring of tissues

3. • Vitamins that are of particular concern of absorption and
bioavailability are the fat-soluble vitamins, i.e., A, D, E, and K. For
example, vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) undergoes degradation when
exposed to light, oxygen, and heat. Moreover, its poor solubility in
water decreases absorption and bioaccessibility
• By increasing the bioaccessibility of these micronutrients through
different nanotechnological delivery vehicles, human well-being can
be improved.

4. Essential trace minerals
Minerals are inorganic compounds. Minerals are also essential to several
metabolic pathways, cell signaling, and synthesis and maintenance of tissues
• Chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium,
and zinc. Except for chromium, each of these is incorporated into enzymes
or hormones required in metabolism. Except for deficiencies of iron and
zinc, micromineral deficiencies are uncommon in developed countries.
• Other minerals (eg, aluminum, arsenic, boron, cobalt, fluoride, nickel,
silicon, vanadium) have not been proved essential for people. Fluoride,
although not essential, helps prevent tooth decay by forming a compound
with calcium (calcium fluoride [CaF2]), which stabilizes the mineral matrix in
teeth.
• All trace minerals are toxic at high levels, and some (arsenic, nickel, and
chromium) may cause cancer.

5. • Micronutrients differ from all other chemical substances in foods in that they
are essential for the human physiology. Adverse (toxicological) effects can
result from intakes that are too low (the typical deficiency diseases)
• Nevertheless, adverse effects can also arise as a result of intakes that are too
high
• So the deficiency and overexposure of micronutrients are the two
physiological aspects considered in terms of toxicology
• Food fortification is recognized as the most cost-effective long-term strategy
for prevention of micronutrient deficiencies
• National programs have been introduced to fortify widely consumed staple
foods such as cereal flour, salt, sugar and soy sauce. Such mass fortification
programs are usually mandated by governments and are most appropriate for
developing countries.
• Food fortification and supplementation implemented under properly
legislated and monitored programs can significantly anticipate reduction in
micronutrient malnutrition in regions with wide prevalence of micronutrient
malnutrition

6. Macronutrients
• Macronutrients are required by the body in relatively large amounts
• Macronutrients constitute the bulk of the diet and supply energy and
many essential nutrients
• Carbohydrates, proteins (including essential amino acids), fats
(including essential fatty acids), macrominerals, and water are
macronutrients

7. Carbohydrates
• Dietary carbohydrates are broken down into glucose and other
monosaccharides. Carbohydrates increase blood glucose levels,
supplying energy.
• Simple carbohydrates are composed of small molecules, generally
monosaccharides or disaccharides, which increase blood glucose
levels rapidly.
• Complex carbohydrates are composed of larger molecules, which are
broken down into monosaccharides. Complex carbohydrates increase
blood glucose levels more slowly but for a longer time.
• Glucose and sucrose are simple carbohydrates; starches and fiber are
complex carbohydrates

8. • The glycemic index measures how rapidly, consumption of a
carbohydrate increases plasma glucose levels. Values range from 1
(the slowest increase) to 100 (the fastest increase, equivalent to pure
glucose). However, the actual rate of increase also depends on what
foods are consumed with the carbohydrate.
• Carbohydrates with a high glycemic index may increase plasma
glucose to high levels rapidly. It is hypothesized that as a
result, insulin levels increase, inducing hypoglycemia and hunger,
which tends to lead to consumption of excess calories and weight
gain.
• Carbohydrates with a low glycemic index increase plasma glucose
levels slowly, resulting in lower postprandial insulin levels and less
hunger, which probably makes consumption of excess calories less
likely. These effects are predicted to result in a more favorable lipid
profile and a decreased risk of obesity, diabetes mellitus,
and complications of diabetes if present

9. Proteins
• Dietary proteins are broken down into peptides and amino acids. Proteins
are required for tissue maintenance, replacement, function, and growth.
However, if the body is not getting enough calories from dietary sources
or tissue stores (particularly of fat), protein may be used for energy
• As the body uses dietary protein for tissue production, there is a net gain
of protein (positive nitrogen balance). During catabolic states ( starvation,
infections, burns), more protein may be used (because body tissues are
broken down) than is absorbed, resulting in a net loss of protein (negative
nitrogen balance). Nitrogen balance is best determined by subtracting the
amount of nitrogen excreted in urine and feces from the amount of
nitrogen consumed

10. • Of the 20 amino acids, 9 are essential amino acids (EAAs); they
cannot be synthesized and must be obtained from the diet. All people
require 8 EAAs; infants also require histidine.
• The weight-adjusted requirement for dietary protein correlates with
growth rate, which decreases from infancy until adulthood. The daily
dietary protein requirement decreases from 2.2 g/kg in 3-month-old
infants to 1.2 g/kg in 5-year-old children and to 0.8 g/kg in adults.
Protein requirements correspond to EAA requirements
• Adults trying to increase muscle mass need very little extra protein
beyond the requirements

11. • The amino acid composition of protein varies widely. Biological value
(BV) reflects the similarity in amino acid composition of protein to
that of animal tissues; thus, BV indicates what percentage of a dietary
protein provides EAAs for the body:
• A perfect match is egg protein, with a value of 100.
• Animal proteins in milk and meat have a high BV (~90).
• Proteins in cereal and vegetables have a lower BV (~40)
• Some derived proteins (eg, gelatin) have a BV of 0.
• The recommended daily allowances (RDA) for protein assumes that
the average mixed diet has a BV of 70

12. Fats
• Fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.
• Required for tissue growth and hormone production.
• Saturated fatty acids, common in animal fats, tend to be solid at room
temperature. Except for palm and coconut oils, fats derived from plants
tend to be liquid at room temperature; these fats contain high levels of
monounsaturated fatty acids or polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).
• Partial hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids produces trans fatty
acids, which are solid or semisolid at room temperature. In the US, the
main dietary source of trans fatty acids is partially hydrogenated
vegetable oils, used in manufacturing certain foods (cookies, crackers,
chips) to prolong shelf-life. Trans fatty acids may elevate LDL cholesterol
and lower HDL; they may also independently increase the risk of
coronary artery disease.

13. • Omega-6 fatty acids (arachidonic acid) and omega-3 fatty acids
(eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid) are required by the body
but can be synthesized from EFAs.
• EFAs are needed for the formation of various eicosanoids (biologically
active lipids), including prostaglandins, thromboxane, prostacyclin, and
leukotrienes. Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids may decrease the risk
of coronary artery disease.
• Requirements for EFAs vary by age. Adults require amounts of linoleic acid
equal to at least 2% of total caloric needs and linolenic acid equal to at
least 0.5%.
• Vegetable oils provide linoleic acid and linolenic acid. Oils made from
safflower, sunflower, corn, soy, primrose, pumpkin, and wheat germ
provide large amounts of linoleic acid. Marine fish oils and oils made from
flaxseeds, pumpkin, soy, and canola provide large amounts of linolenic
acid. Marine fish oils also provide some other omega-3 fatty acids in large
amounts.

14. Fiber
• Fiber occurs in various forms (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gums).
• It increases gastrointestinal motility, prevents constipation, and helps
control diverticular disease.
• Fiber is thought to accelerate the elimination of cancer-causing substances
produced by bacteria in the large intestine. Epidemiologic evidence suggests
an association between colon cancer and low fiber intake and a beneficial
effect of fiber in patients with functional bowel disorders, Crohn
disease, obesity, or hemorrhoids.
• Soluble fiber (present in fruits, vegetables, oats, barley, and legumes) reduces
the postprandial increase in blood glucose and insulin and can reduce
cholesterol levels
• fiber intake to about 30 g/day by consuming more vegetables, fruits, and high-
fiber cereals and grains is generally recommended. However, very high fiber
intake may reduce absorption of certain minerals.

15. ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS
• Those compounds found in most food substances which are
deleterious to humans or in some ways limit the nutrient availability
to the body.
• These anti-nutritional factors are also known as ‘secondary
metabolites’ in plants and they have been shown to be highly
biologically active. Plants evolved these substances to protect
themselves and to prevent them from being eaten.
• These secondary metabolites are secondary compound produced as
side products of processes leading to the synthesis of primary
metabolites

16. ANTINUTRIENTS
• Anti-nutrients are chemical substances which reduces the maximum
utilization of nutrients especially proteins, vitamins, and minerals,
thus preventing optimal exploitation of the nutrients present in a
food and decreasing the nutritive value.
• Some of these plant chemicals have been shown to be
advantageous/beneficial to human and animal health if consumed at
appropriate amounts.

17. • ANTI-NUTRIENTS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO GROUPS
• Heat-stable group
• Maintained at high temperature.
• Phytic acid, polyphenolic compounds (such as condensed Tannins),
Alkaloids, and Saponins
• Heat labile group
• Sensitive to standard temperature and lost at high temperature
• lectins, Cynogenic Glycosides, Protease inhibitors, and toxic amino acids
etc.

18. Anti-nutrients Effects on body
Phytates Reduce Ca and Fe absorption
Oxalates Reduce Ca absorption, encourage kidney stone formation
Cyanide Respiratory inhibitors
Lectins (Hemagglutinins) Prevent absorption of digestive end products in the small intestine.
Adverse effects of Anti-nutrients
Protease inhibitors Substances reduce protein digestion.
Phenol Compounds They reduce bioavailability of some minerals (especially zinc).
Tannins are usually stable when confronted with heat, and they may
negatively affect pH mechanism, reduce protein digestion.

19. PROTEASE INHIBITORS
• Trypsin and Chymotrypsin inhibitor
• These substances reduce protein digestion
• They have ability to inhibit the activity of proteolytic enzymes within
the gastro- intestinal tract.
• About 10-20 % of the total active trypsin is found in human
pancreatic juice. They bind proteases, which are resistant to
digestion in the small intestine, and thus ensure their removal
through excretion
• When legumes are eaten raw or without being cooked properly, they
upset digestive functions and cause diarrhea or excessive gas.

20. Amylase inhibitors
• Amylase inhibitors are also known as starch blockers because they
contain substances that prevent dietary starches from being absorbed
by the body.
• Amylase inhibitor can reduce starch digestion
Sapnins
• Saponins are a heterogenous group of naturally occurring triterpene or
steroidal glycosides that occur in a wide range of plants, including
pulses and oilseeds such as kidney bean, lentil, pea, chickpea etc.
• cause hypocholesterolaemia by binding cholesterol, making it
unavailable for absorption.
• cause haemolysis of red blood cells
• Legume saponins have only moderate toxicity and present a problem
only when present in the diet at higher concentrations

21. Allergens
• They are substances that are generally found in nutrients.
• They cause allergic reactions that are specific to certain individuals.
• The level of harm done depends on the sensitivity level of individual’s
body rather than the quantity of the substances taken with the food.
• Diarrhea and vomiting are symptoms of allergy
GOITROGENS
• These glycosides cause the thyroid gland to grow by inhibiting the
iodine intake of the thyroid gland.
• This toxic effect can be reduced with the addition of iodine to the
diet.

22. • Phytic acid acts as a strong chelator, forming protein and mineral-phytic acid
complexes (reduced protein and mineral bioavailability)
• Phytic acid chelate metal ions such as calcium, magnesium, zinc, copper, iron,
and molybdenum to form insoluble complexes that are not readily absorbed
from the gastrointestinal tract
anti- vitamin D factor present in soybeans, which interferes with calcium and
phosphorus absorption and is destroyed by autoclavinlg.
anti-vitamin E factor present in kidney beans, soybeans, alfalfa and field pea,
causing liver necrosis and muscular dystrophy and is destroyed by
autoclaving.
anti- vitamin K factor present in sweet clover.
anti-thiamine factor present in cottonseed, linseed, mung bean, and
mustard seed.
anti-niacin factor present in sorghum.
anti-pyridoxine factor present in linseed, which is destroyed by water
extraction and autoclaving.
anti-vitamin B12 factor present in raw soybeans.

23. METHOD OF
ELIMINATION OF
ANTI-NURIENTS
1.Post harvest
processing
2. Chemical
detoxification
3. Genetic
engineering
4. Through genetic
modification of
crops

24. POST HARVEST
PROCESSING
5. COMBINATON OF DOMESTIC
PROCESSING WITH CHEMICAL METHODS
1. COOKING
2. SOAKING /
GERMINATION/FERMENTATION
3. Drying
4. AUTOCLAVING /
STEAMING

25. • Most of the toxic and anti-nutrient effects of these
compounds in food could be removed by several
processing methods such as soaking, germination,
boiling, autoclaving, fermentation, genetic
manipulation and other processing methods, but
extensive research is still needed to discover
elimination methods for heat stable anti-nutrients
present in various food without altering the nutritional
value of food.

26. • THANK YOU